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A comprehensive search of the literature for studies examining physical activity or nutrition interventions in the workplace, published between 1999 and March 2009, was conducted. This search identified 29 relevant studies. Interventions were grouped according to the theoretical framework on which the interventions were based (e.g. education, cognitive-behavioural, motivation enhancement, social influence, exercise). Weighted Cohen's d effect sizes, percentage overlap statistics, confidence intervals and fail safe Ns were calculated. Most theoretical approaches were associated with small effects. However, large effects were found for some measures of interventions using motivation enhancement. Effect sizes were larger for studies focusing on one health behaviour and for randomized controlled trials. The workplace is a suitable environment for making modest changes in the physical activity, nutrition and health of employees. Further research is necessary to determine whether these changes can be maintained in the long term.

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Thus, we appraise the relevant literature by conducting a meta-analytic review of studies that have examined associations between perceived LAS and a variety of employee outcomes, including autonomous and controlled work motivation, basic psychological needs, a range of work-based consequences, and employee well-being. Meta-analysis can provide a quantitative summary of the observed correlations in a literature, identify moderators of those correlations, test theoretical mechanisms, and highlight areas of inquiry that might be pursued in the future. We begin by providing a brief history of LAS in the workplace. We next provide a basic overview of the types of motivation described by SDT and explain how these are thought to relate to LAS in organizations. We review possible moderators of effects, and then explore how LAS relates to basic needs, well-being, and work outcomes, before turning to the meta-analytic review itself.

First, there is evidence to suggest that the effects of leader behaviors on employees may be affected by the physical and/or psychological distance between the leader and employee (Antonakis and Atwater 2002). The associations between transformational leadership and follower behavior, for example, has been found to be attenuated by increased social (e.g., Cole et al. 2009) or physical (e.g., Howell and Hall-Merenda 1999; Humphreys 2002) distance. Based on the available studies, we broadly define distance in terms of the supervisor and employee hierarchy within the organization, ranging from proximal (i.e., immediate supervisor) to more distal sources (e.g., senior organizational leaders). It is likely that the salience of leader behavior is heightened within proximal relationships because it is more commonly observed, and thus observed correlations may be stronger in these situations.

In addition, several instruments have been used to measure perceived leader autonomy support in the literature, including the short- and long-form of the Work Climate Questionnaire (Baard et al. 2004), the Perceived Autonomy Support Scale for Employees (Moreau and Mageau 2012), and the Work Climate Scale (Deci et al. 1989), among other idiosyncratic measures (e.g., Lynch et al. 2005). Because correlations are attenuated by imperfect construct validity in measurement instruments (Schmidt and Hunter 2015), to the extent that any of these measures are less construct-valid than others, their yielded effects will likely be systematically biased downwards. Thus, the operationalization of autonomy support is important to consider as a possible moderator of observed effects and we explore this possibility in the present meta-analysis.

SDT also predicts that need satisfaction results in individual well-being (Olafsen 2017). Numerous theories and definitions of psychological well-being exist, including ideas stemming from both hedonic (e.g., subjective well-being) and eudaimonic (e.g., meaning/purpose) traditions (Deci and Ryan 2008; Ryan and Deci 2001). While there is some evidence that LAS predicts both forms of well-being, it has not yet been established whether it relates more strongly to hedonic indicators, or feelings and experiences associated with eudaimonia, as few studies have examined both simultaneously. This is important because an understanding of the environmental conditions that support different types of well-being will allow for more targeted interventions (Kern et al. 2015).

Beyond well-being, the need satisfying experiences and internalization of motivation produced by LAS may also impact a variety of workplace outcome variables, including work performance, job satisfaction, work engagement, and various work-related behaviors (e.g., proactive or prosocial behavior) (Deci et al. 2017). When employees perceive that they are free to perform their work in their own way within an autonomy supportive context, they may be more likely to find that work engaging, possess more favorable evaluations of the job (job satisfaction), and proactively engage with their environment and others with whom they work (proactive and prosocial behavior, and work performance). Overall, the empirical data is largely consistent with these premises, showing positive relations between LAS and work engagement (e.g., Deci et al. 2001; Van Schie et al. 2015), positive job attitudes (e.g., organizational commitment; Chang et al. 2015; Collie et al. 2016) prosocial and proactive behaviors (e.g., Gagn 2003; Gntert 2015; Slemp 2017; Slemp et al. 2015), and performance (e.g., Baard et al. 2004; Braun et al. 2012).

Although several studies have examined correlates of LAS in workplaces, no attempt has yet been made to statistically aggregate the findings in this literature. Accordingly, the exact magnitude of its relationship with important variables, including the internalized work motivation processes described by SDT, as well as well-being, behavior, and other work-based outcomes have not yet been established. Meta-analysis can help address this need because it makes possible the systematic combination and statistical aggregation of single studies to obtain more stable estimates of overall associations, as well as moderators of those associations (Schmidt and Hunter 2015).

Third, we aimed to test the hypothesized pathway model summarized in Fig. 2. Integrative reviews make it possible to bridge across samples, even when no one primary study has investigated all of the variables of interest (Becker 2009; Schmidt 2010; Viswesvaran and Ones 1995). Because the overall correlations connect the studies together, pathways can be tested, and theoretical predictions can be explored. This technique is important because it allows us to go beyond the individual meta-analysis results and assess the relative impact of the key theoretical mechanisms intended to explain the autonomy support to work motivation and work outcome associations proposed by Deci et al. (2017).

The search process identified 4607 potential articles through databases, and another 720 through reference list snowballing. These sources were initially screened for inclusion using the titles and abstracts. This initial screening process led to the exclusion of 4611 studies due to duplication, irrelevancy, or clear failure to meet the inclusion criteria (see below). The resulting set of 716 articles was reduced to 112 based on eligibility criteria. An additional 40 were removed for failing to provide enough information to extract a correlation and, where possible, requests for data from the corresponding author were either not answered or unavailable. Finally, eligible sources were screened using the procedure described by Wood (2008) to eliminate bias created by duplicate studies. In all, a database including a total of 72 sources (50 published), reporting data from 83 unique samples and 32,870 participants were included in the current meta-analysis (see Appendix 1 in Supplementary Material for systematic search flow diagram).

Our coding process involved two transformations of the data. First, we used the formula provided by Schmidt and Hunter (2015) to aggregate within study correlations when the original source only presented correlations involving facets of autonomy support or facets of the correlate variables. For example, some studies (e.g., Collie et al. 2016; Gagn et al. 2015) provided separate correlations for facets of autonomous motivation (e.g., intrinsic motivation, identified regulation) and controlled motivation (introjected regulation, external regulation) using the Multidimensional Work Motivation Scale (Gagn et al. 2015). The correlations between these facet variables were used to arrive at composite correlations between perceived LAS and both autonomous and controlled forms of work motivation. We also calculated separate meta-analytic estimates for the more specific motivational facets. Where necessary, similar procedures were used to calculate composite correlations between perceived LAS and intrinsic need satisfaction (total), work engagement, organizational commitment, proactive behavior, and prosocial behavior. Moreover, because the facets of autonomy support or its criterion constructs were generally not orthogonal, Mosier (1943) reliabilities for composite variables were calculated when possible. The calculation of the Mosier reliabilities requires the correlations between facets within a composite. In the few instances where these data were unavailable we entered the mean of the reliabilities across the facets as a proxy.

Second, studies have investigated correlations between perceived LAS and a range of correlate variables. Meta-analysis requires the grouping of similar variables together, which we used to establish correlate categories. For example, Atkins et al. (2015) measured well-being using two measures: positive affect and life satisfaction. The correlations between these variables were statistically aggregated to arrive at an overall estimate of the correlation between autonomy support and hedonic well-being, which was then entered into the meta-analysis (see Appendix 3 in Supplementary Material for a full list of the measured variables used to construct correlate categories). e24fc04721