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Topography is the study of the land surface. In particular, it lays the underlying foundation of a landscape. For example, topography refers to mountains, valleys, rivers, or craters on the surface.

Elevation is the distinguishing factor for topographic maps. In GIS, we use digital elevation models for the terrain. Nine out of ten topographic maps show contour lines, which are just lines of equal elevation. The narrow definition of topography is specific to the arrangement of landforms.

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Another example of a topographic map is the USGS Tapestry of Time and Terrain. This colorful map overlays topography (hillshade) with underlying rock formations. This helps unravel the geologic history of the continent, such as mountain-building events.

Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary science and is concerned with local detail in general, including not only relief, but also natural, artificial, and cultural features such as roads, land boundaries, and buildings.[1] In the United States, topography often means specifically relief, even though the USGS topographic maps record not just elevation contours, but also roads, populated places, structures, land boundaries, and so on.[2]

An objective of topography is to determine the position of any feature or more generally any point in terms of both a horizontal coordinate system such as latitude, longitude, and altitude. Identifying (naming) features, and recognizing typical landform patterns are also part of the field.

The digital elevation model (DEM) is a raster-based digital dataset of the topography (hypsometry and/or bathymetry) of all or part of the Earth (or a telluric planet). The pixels of the dataset are each assigned an elevation value, and a header portion of the dataset defines the area of coverage, the units each pixel covers, and the units of elevation (and the zero-point). DEMs may be derived from existing paper maps and survey data, or they may be generated from new satellite or other remotely sensed radar or sonar data.

Topography has been applied to different science fields. In neuroscience, the neuroimaging discipline uses techniques such as EEG topography for brain mapping. In ophthalmology, corneal topography is used as a technique for mapping the surface curvature of the cornea. In tissue engineering, atomic force microscopy is used to map nanotopography.

In mathematics the concept of topography is used to indicate the patterns or general organization of features on a map or as a term referring to the pattern in which variables (or their values) are distributed in a space.

Topography combines top- with graph-, a root meaning "write" or "describe". The topography of the Sahara Desert features shifting sand dunes and dry, rocky mountains. A topographic (or topo) map not only shows the surface features of a region but also indicates the contours and approximate altitude of every location, by means of numerous curving lines, each indicating a single elevation. In other words, it shows a "three-dimensional" picture on a two-dimensional surface. Topo maps are commonly used by hikers, surveyors, government workers, and engineers, among other people.

In this situation, I would probably try to project the road with an offset onto a flat plane below the topography, create a solid from both faces and then intersect the geometries, see this for instance:

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Hi @Vikram_Subbaiah Thank you for the advise. As I understand you manually split the topography before running the script? Good workaround! I would like to incorporate the splitting of the surface by a defined offset into the script - in the future.

The three-dimensional arrangement of physical attributes (such as shape, height, and depth) of a land surface in a place or region. Physical features that make up the topography of an area include mountains, valleys, plains, and bodies of water. Human-made features such as roads, railroads, and landfills are also often considered part of a region's topography.

What Is Corneal Topography?Corneal topography is a special photography technique that maps the surface of the clear, front window of the eye (the cornea). It works much like a 3D (three-dimensional) map of the world, that helps identify features like mountains and valleys. But with a topography scan, a doctor can find distortions in the curvature of the cornea, which is normally smooth. It also helps doctors monitor eye disease and plan for surgery.

Because no detailed information exists regarding the topographic representation of swallowing musculature on the human cerebral cortex in health or disease, we used transcranial magnetic stimulation to study the cortical topography of human oral, pharyngeal and esophageal musculature in 20 healthy individuals and the topography of pharyngeal musculature in two stroke patients, one with and one without dysphagia. Our results demonstrate that swallowing musculature is discretely and somatotopically represented on the motor and premotor cortex of both hemispheres but displays interhemispheric asymmetry, independent of handedness. Following stroke, dysphagia appeared to be associated with smaller pharyngeal representation on the intact hemisphere, which increases in size with recovery of swallowing.

Topography is evaluated using Placido disk patterns or mires reflected off of the tear film of the anterior cornea and converted to color scales. Because the image is generated off the tear film, irregularities in tear film can significantly impact the quality and fidelity of a Placido disk topography. Secondly, lack of patient fixation may affect the quality of the topographic image. Finally, there is decreased accuracy of posterior elevation values especially after refractive surgery.

In comparison to topography which is good at capturing anterior corneal power, overall corneal shape is best captured by tomography. Scanning slit technology, Scheimpflug-based imaging, and anterior segment OCT technology is used to take multiple slit images of the cornea and provide data on both the anterior and posterior surfaces.

Step 5. The next step is to look at the actual numbers on the charts and in the statistics boxes.Numerical overlays show thinning and central corneal thickness , apical keratometry , anterior and posterior corneal elevations and specific details at a point , which can be assessed by moving the cursor on that point.The figure below shows the important numerical overlays in a Scheimpflug topography printout.

Step 6 . Compare with slit lamp findings again. It should always be kept in mind that corneal topography can be effected by corneal artifacts and therefore interpretative value is decreased in cases such as nebulomacular corneal opacities, dry eye , corneal neovascularisations and corneal scars.

Land topography is a digital image of the three-dimensional structure of the Earth's surface. Shading indicates changes in slope or elevation. The relief shading in this topographic map comes mostly from elevation data collected by space-based radars. A radar in space sends a pulse of radio waves toward the earth and measures the strength and length of time it takes a signal to bounce back. From this information, scientists can determine the height and shape of the features on the surface.

Topography not only gives a realistic picture of what the Earth's surface actually looks like, it also helps scientists determine things like how rivers and streams drain through the landscape, where lowlands are prone to flooding, how plate tectonics or erosion are building or wearing away mountains, where hills may be prone to landslides, or how a volcanic eruption changed the shape of a mountain. Topography is also one of the factors that influences where particular ecosystems exist. Therefore topography is one of the factors that scientists can use to predict where certain plants or animals, such as endangered species, might be found.

The mean dynamic ocean topography (DOT) is the difference between the time-averaged sea surface and the geoid (the equipotential surface of the Earth's gravity field that best fits the mean sea surface). All geoid slopes are 'horizontal'. A tilt of the the sea surface relative to the horizontal measures the strength of surface 'geostrophic' currents. The mean DOT (MDOT) measures the long-term-averaged strength of ocean currents, the 'steady-state' circulation. One example is the Gulf Stream, whose position averaged over any one year now is about the same as in 1786, when Benjamin Franklin and Timothy Folger charted it (Richardson, 1980). The North-South (meridional) gradient of the DOT is proportional to the East-West (zonal) geostrophic component of ocean surface current velocities (the rest is the wind-driven Ekman current); the zonal gradient of the DOT is proportional to the meridional velocity.

Maximenko, Niiler et al (2009) Mean dynamic topography of the ocean derived from satellite and drifting buoy data using three different techniques. J. Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 26, pp 1910-1919.

Rio, M. H., S. Guinehut, and G. Larnicol (2011), New CNES?CLS09 global mean dynamic topography computed from the combination of GRACE data, altimetry, and in situ measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 116, C07018, doi:10.1029/2010JC006505

To the best of our knowledge, we provide the first systematic signature-based characterization of the genomic distribution of all classes of somatic mutations in human cancer. The power provided by large numbers of WGSs of a single cancer type affords a higher resolution perspective on the topography of biological processes underlying mutagenesis in breast tissue. We emphasized how detailed analyses help showcase the mechanistic contribution of replication dynamics to specific mutational processes (for example, APOBEC-related signatures 2 and 13). We also highlighted how multiple forms of DNA repair have an impact on mutation distribution leaving complex but distinctive global genomic profiles. Finally, the signature-based genomic variation seen here drives home a fundamental point regarding genomic analyses forthwith: statistical models involving mutability cannot assume uniform genomic mutation rates and must consider signature-dependent variation as a factor in all future analyses. 2351a5e196