Lahore's origin dates back to antiquity. The city has been inhabited for around two millennia, although it rose to prominence in the late 10th century.[22] Lahore was the capital of several empires during the medieval era, including the Hindu Shahis, Ghaznavids and Delhi Sultanate. It reached the height of its splendor under the Mughal Empire between the late 16th and early 18th centuries and also served as its capital city for many years. During this period, it was one of the largest cities in the world.[23] The city was captured by the forces of the Persian Afsharid ruler Nader Shah in 1739. Although the Mughal authority was re-established, it fell into a period of decay while being contested among the Afghans and the Sikhs between 1748 and 1798. Lahore eventually became the capital of the Sikh Empire in the early 19th century, regaining some of its lost grandeur.[24] Lahore was annexed to the British Raj in 1849 and became the capital of British Punjab.[25] Lahore was central to the independence movements of both India and Pakistan, with the city being the site of both the Declaration of Indian Independence and the resolution calling for the establishment of Pakistan. It experienced some of the worst rioting during the Partition period preceding Pakistan's independence.[26] Following the success of the Pakistan Movement and the subsequent partition of British India in 1947, Lahore was declared the capital of Pakistan's Punjab province.
Lahore exerts a strong cultural influence over Pakistan.[27] A UNESCO City of Literature and major center for Pakistan's publishing industry, Lahore remains the foremost center of Pakistan's literary scene. The city is also a major centre of education in Pakistan,[28] with some of Pakistan's leading universities based in the city.[29] For many years, Lahore was home to Pakistan's film industry, Lollywood, though in recent years most filming has shifted to Karachi. Lahore is a major centre of Qawwali music.[30] The city also hosts much of Pakistan's tourist industry,[30][31] with major attractions including the Walled City, the famous Badshahi and Wazir Khan mosques, as well as several Sikh and Sufi shrines. Lahore is also home to the Lahore Fort and Shalimar Gardens, both of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[31]
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The origin of Lahore's name is unclear. The city's name has been variously recorded by early Muslim historians as Luhawar, Lhr, and Rahwar.[32] The Iranian polymath and geographer, Abu Rayhan Al-Biruni, referred to the city as Luhwar in his 11th century work, Qanun,[32] while the poet Amir Khusrow, who lived during the Delhi Sultanate period, recorded the city's name as Lhanr.[33] Yaqut al-Hamawi records the city's name as Lawhr, mentioning that it was famously known as Lahwar.[34] Persian historian Firishta mentions the city as Alahwar in his work, with al-Ahwar being another variation.[35][36]
One theory suggests that Lahore's name is a corruption of the word Ravwar, as R to L shifts are common in languages derived from Sanskrit.[37] Ravwar is the simplified pronunciation of the name Iravatywar, a name possibly derived from the Ravi River, known as the Iravati River in the Vedas.[37][38] Another theory suggests the city's name may derive from the word Lohar, meaning "blacksmith".[39]
According to a legend,[40][41] Lahore's name derives from Lavpur or Lavapuri ("City of Lava"),[42] and is said to have been founded by Prince Lava,[43] the son of Sita and Rama. The same account attributes the founding of nearby Kasur to his twin brother Kusha,[44] though it was actually established in the 16th century.[45]
No definitive record of Lahore's early history exists, and its ambiguous historical background has given rise to various theories about its establishment and history. Hindu legend states that Keneksen, the founder of the Solar dynasty, migrated out from the city.[46]
Alexander the Great's historians make no mention of any city near Lahore's location during his invasion in 326 BCE, suggesting the city had not been founded by that point or was not noteworthy.[47] Ptolemy mentions in his Geography a city called Labokla situated near the Chenab and Ravi rivers which may have been in reference to ancient Lahore, or an abandoned predecessor of the city.[48] Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang gave a vivid description of a large and prosperous unnamed city that may have been Lahore when he visited the region in 630 CE during his tour of India.[49] Xuanzang described the city, then under Taank rule, as a great Brahmin city.
The first document that mentions Lahore by name is the Hudud al-'Alam ("The Regions of the World"), written in 982 CE,[50] in which Lahore is mentioned as a town which had "impressive temples, large markets and huge orchards".[51][52]
Sultan Mahmud conquered Lahore between 1020 and 1027, making it part of Ghaznavid Empire.[49] He appointed Malik Ayaz as its governor in 1021. In 1034, the city was captured by Nialtigin, the rebellious governor of Multan. However, his forces were expelled by Malik Ayaz in 1036.[55]
Lahore was formally made the eastern capital of Ghaznavid Empire during the reign of Khusrau Shah in 1152.[24][59] After the fall of Ghazni in 1163, It became the sole capital.[60] Under their patronage, poets and scholars from other cities of Ghaznavid Empire congregated in Lahore.[61] The entire city of Lahore during the medieval Ghaznavid era was probably located west of the modern Shah Alami Bazaar and north of the Bhatti Gate.[24]
Following the Siege of Lahore in 1186, the Ghurid ruler Muhammad captured the city and imprisoned the last Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik,[49] thus ending Ghaznavid rule over Lahore. Lahore was made an important establishment of the Mamluk dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate following the assassination of Muhammad of Ghor in 1206. Under the reign of Mamluk sultan Qutb ud-Din Aibak, Lahore attracted poets and scholars from medieval Muslim World. Lahore at this time had more poets writing in Persian than any other city.[62][63] Following the death of Aibak, Lahore first came under the control of the Governor of Multan, Nasir ad-Din Qabacha, and then was briefly captured in 1217 by the sultan in Delhi, Iltutmish.[49]
In an alliance with local Khokhars in 1223, Khwarazmian sultan Jalal al-Din Mangburni captured Lahore after fleeing from Genghis Khan's invasion of his realm.[49] Mangburni then fled from Lahore to the city of Uch Sharif after Iltutmish's army re-captured Lahore in 1228.[49]
The threat of Mongol invasions and political instability in Lahore caused future sultans to regard Delhi as a safer capital for the sultanate,[64] even though Delhi was considered a forward base whereas Lahore was widely considered as the centre of Islamic culture in northeastern Punjab.[64]
Lahore came under progressively weaker central rule under Iltutmish's descendants in Delhi, to the point that governors in the city acted with great autonomy.[49] Under the rule of Kabir Khan Ayaz, Lahore was virtually independent from the Delhi Sultanate. Actual Sultanate rule on Lahore lasted only a few decades until the locals reclaimed their autonomy.[49] Lahore was sacked and ruined by the Mongol army in 1241.[65] Lahore governor Malik Ikhtyaruddin Qaraqash fled the Mongols,[66] while the Mongols held the city for a few years under the rule of the Mongol chief Toghrul.[64]
In 1266, sultan Balban reconquered Lahore, but in 1287 under the Mongol ruler Temr Khan,[64] the Mongols again overran northern Punjab. Because of Mongol invasions, Lahore region became a city on a frontier, with the region's administrative centre shifted south to Dipalpur.[49] The Mongols again invaded northern Punjab in 1298, though their advance was eventually stopped by Ulugh Khan, brother of Sultan Alauddin Khalji of Delhi.[64] The Mongols again attacked Lahore in 1305.[67]
Lahore briefly flourished again under the reign of Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq (Ghazi Malik) of the Tughluq dynasty between 1320 and 1325, though the city was again sacked in 1329 by Tarmashirin of the Central Asian Chagatai Khanate, and then again by the Mongol chief Hlech.[49] Khokhars seized Lahore in 1342,[68] but the city was retaken by Ghazi Malik's son, Muhammad bin Tughluq.[49] The weakened city then fell into obscurity and was captured once more by the Khokhar chief, Shaikha in 1394.[55] By the time the Mongol conqueror Timur captured the city in 1398 from Shaikha, he did not loot it because it was no longer wealthy.[46]
Bahlul Lodi installed his cousin, Tatar Khan, to be governor of the city, though Tatar Khan died in battle with Sikandar Lodi in 1485.[70] Governorship of Lahore was transferred by Sikandar Lodi to Umar Khan Sarwani, who quickly left the management of this city to his son Said Khan Sarwani. Said Khan was removed from power in 1500 by Sikandar Lodi, and Lahore came under the governorship of Daulat Khan Lodi, son of Tatar Khan and former employer of Guru Nanak (the founder of Sikhism).[70]
Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, captured and sacked Lahore and Dipalpur, although he retreated after the Lodi nobles backed away from assisting him.[72][49] The city became a refuge to Humayun and his cousin Kamran Mirza when Sher Shah Suri rose in power in the Gangetic plains, displacing Mughals. Sher Shah Suri seized Lahore in 1540, though Humayun reconquered Lahore in February 1555.[49] The establishment of Mughal rule eventually led to the most prosperous era of Lahore's history.[49] Lahore's prosperity and central position has yielded more Mughal-era monuments in Lahore than either Delhi or Agra.[73]
By the time of the rule of the Mughal empire's greatest emperors, a majority of Lahore's residents did not live within the walled city itself but instead lived in suburbs that had spread outside the city's walls.[24] Only 9 of the 36 urban quarters around Lahore, known as guzars, were located within the city walls during the Akbar period.[24] During this period, Lahore was closely tied to smaller market towns known as qasbahs, such as Kasur and Eminabad, as well as Amritsar, and Batala in modern-day India, which in turn, linked to supply chains in villages surrounding each qasbah.[24] 152ee80cbc
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