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Many systems and schemes attempt to provide accurate and reliable predictions of fire danger; analyze the fuel, topography, and weather; and integrate their effects into a set of numbers that fire managers can use to meet their needs.

Managers use the National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS) to input data and to receive information used to determine fire danger in their area. Based on the fire danger, managers may impose restrictions or closures to public lands, plan for or pre-position staff and equipment to fight new fires, and make decisions whether to suppress or allow fires to burn under prescribed conditions.

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Fuel moisture is measured for live herbaceous (annual and perennial) and woody (shrubs, branches, and foliage) fuels and dry (dead) fuels. These are calculated values representing approximate moisture content of the fuel. Fuel moisture in live fuels varies through the growing season and between different climate classes. There are 20 different fuel models, representing the variety of vegetation in the area, that a manager can use when calculating fire danger.

Live fuel moisture is the water content of live herbaceous plants expressed as a percentage of the oven-dry weight of the plant. Typical herbaceous fuel moisture values start low and increase rapidly as the growing season progresses. Lower values indicate drier materials and higher fire danger. View the Fuel Moisture Database

The Lower Atmosphere Stability Index, or Haines Index, is computed from the morning (12Zulu) soundings from Radiosonde Observation (RAOB) stations across North America. The index is composed of a stability term and a moisture term. The stability term is derived from the temperature difference at two atmospheric levels. The moisture term is derived from the dew point depression at a single atmosphere level.

Analysis shows >98% concordance between the retired COVID-19 Community Levels (CCLs) and COVID-19 hospital admission levels. Scientific evidence and studies behind specific guidance and recommendations, as well as further details outlining the agreement between CCLs and COVID-19 hospital admission levels, can be found below.

Biosafety level 1 (BSL-1) controls microorganisms unusually known to cause disease with "minimal hazards" to the laboratory and the community. A recent study involves the selection of a BSL-1 bacteriophage surrogate to assess the efficacy of a chlorine-based surface disinfectant for Ebola outbreaks. This study recommends the collaboration of BSL-4 and non-BSL-4 facilities to assist in the selection and research of better surrogates, which can be more effective in BSL-4 conditions.[4]

Biosafety level 2 (BSL-2) controls microorganisms generating "moderate hazards" to the laboratory and the community. In other parts of the world, there are still no available guidelines for the validation and certification of biosafety laboratories[2]. The year 2017 saw the identification and analysis of issues regarding biosafety implementation in BSL-2 and BSL-3. There is a need to make clear distinctions between certification and validation of clinical and microbiological laboratories. The need for careful implementation must be first recognized.[5]

Biosafety level 3 (BSL-3) includes the control of infectious agents, which can cause both "serious hazards" and can cause a potentially lethal condition to laboratory and community via the respiratory transmission of the organism. A typical example of an organism under this classification is the Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacterial agent responsible for tuberculosis. There have been challenges for program and tuberculosis (TB) laboratory managers in implementing the specific considerations for this level, particularly in resource-limited and TB, high-burden settings because there is insufficient biosafety expertise available to conduct individualized risk assessments for TB laboratories. The application of the biosafety level classification in BSL-3 requirements may not practically and adequately match the specific precautions relevant to the laboratories performing TB-related tests and procedures. To solve this problem, TB laboratories adopted a risk-assessment approach instead of applying the concept of BSL-3 (which is a risk-group approach). Any TB laboratory (a clinical, medical, or public health laboratory carrying out TB diagnostic tests) can classify as low risk, moderate risk, or a high TB risk based on the amount of aerosol generated during the conduct of a particular laboratory procedure. Countries where TB is still a significant public health concern, have already adopted these guidelines.[6][7][8]

Biosafety level 4 (BSL-4) is the highest and "most complex" biohazard level, involving a relatively few clinical microbiology laboratories. There is a high transmission via aerosol, making the pathogens more dangerous for the laboratory workforce and the surrounding community. Marburg and Ebola viruses fall into this risk group. Stakeholders and international experts attended conferences in the past in Europe to revisit the issues that emerged for BSL-4 implementation. They seek opportunities for the use of BSL-4 in public health, diagnostics, and research in terms of its sustainability, improvement of existing training designs and curricula, and strong collaboration to address biosafety and biosecurity. An integrated partnership of human, veterinary, and military laboratories with BSL-4 facilities is necessary to unify its approach to the development of laboratory biosafety standards. The participation of BSL-4 in outbreaks can be substantial to attain a more effective outbreak management.[9]

Risk-group classification of required biosafety precautions is ideally a logical approach to minimize laboratory-acquired infections. However, while each laboratory can easily identify and meet the special considerations required, the practicality of the actual day-to-day situation of the laboratory workflow is still more important. Strict adherence to these biohazard levels can be useful and beneficial for some facilities with the capability to comply. In a similar case previously described for TB laboratories, a risk-based approach is more applicable so that safety precautions can "tailor-fit" to the activities of each clinical laboratory. Further studies are still essential to make this a reality on a global scale.[10][8]

Knowledge of biohazard levels must not be limited to laboratory professionals. All healthcare workers (clinicians, nurses, pharmacists, etc.) need to be aware of the categories of biohazard levels because they have the potential to impact every patient. For instance, signs and symbols should always be posted on medical and nursing floors when dealing with a high-level biohazard.

Fire Danger is a description of the combination of both constant and variable factors that affect the initiation, spread, and difficulty to control a wildfire within a specific area. There are many systems and models that attempt to provide accurate and reliable predictions of fire danger. Typically, the effects of fuel conditions, topography, and weather conditions are analyzed and integrated into a set of numbers that fire managers can use to meet their needs.

Many Federal and State agencies use the National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS) to input data and receive information used to determine the fire danger in their area. Based on the fire danger, managers may impose restrictions or closures to public lands, plan for or pre-position staff and equipment to fight new fires, and decide whether to suppress or allow fires to burn under prescribed conditions.

A Red Flag Warning (also known as a Fire Weather Warning) is a forecast warning issued by the United States National Weather Service to inform firefighting and land management agencies that conditions are conducive to the ignition and rapid spread of wildland fires. During drought conditions, or when humidity is very low, and especially when there are high or erratic winds, the Red Flag Warning becomes a critical statement for firefighting agencies. These agencies often alter their staffing and equipment resources dramatically to accommodate the forecast risk. Outdoor burning bans may also be issued by State and local fire agencies based on Red Flag Warning. To the public, a Red Flag Warning means high fire danger with increased probability of a quickly spreading vegetation fire in the area within 24 hours.

The hazard categories numbered 1 to 5 have been determined by the specialist government bodies for natural hazards. Prevailing circumstances are outlined in terms of their potential dangers and their impact on society for each individual category within the various natural hazard types. Whilst the definitions have been made as similar as possible for the same hazard category numbers across the different natural hazards, it is, of course, not possible to make direct comparisons between them. Detailed explanations of the hazard categories for each natural hazard can be found in the menu on the left-hand side of this page.

In January 2021, EPA finalized a rule that lowered the DLCL to 10 g/ft for floors, 100 g/ft for window sills. DLCL for window troughs remained the same at 400 g/ft. The new clearance levels became effective March 8, 2021.

Sea level along the U.S. coastline is projected to rise, on average, 10 - 12 inches (0.25 - 0.30 meters) in the next 30 years (2020 - 2050), which will be as much as the rise measured over the last 100 years (1920 - 2020). Sea level rise will vary regionally along U.S. coasts because of changes in both land and ocean height.

Current and future emissions matter. About 2 feet (0.6 meters) of sea level rise along the U.S. coastline is increasingly likely between 2020 and 2100 because of emissions to date. Failing to curb future emissions could cause an additional 1.5 - 5 feet (0.5 - 1.5 meters) of rise for a total of 3.5 - 7 feet (1.1 - 2.1 meters) by the end of this century. 2351a5e196