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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period (also spelled medival or mediaeval) lasted approximately from 500 AD to 1500, although alternative starting and end points exist. The Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history: antiquity, medieval, and modern. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages, and the early medieval period is alternatively referred to as the Dark Ages.

The Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history: Antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Modern Period.[1] Leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People (1442),[2] and it became standard with 17th-century German historian Christoph Cellarius.[3] The adjective medieval, meaning pertaining to the Middle Ages,[note 1][4] derives from medium aevum ('middle age'), a Neo-Latin term first recorded in 1604.[note 2][5]

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Women took part in aristocratic society mainly in their roles as wives and mothers, with the role of mother of a ruler being especially prominent in Francia. In Anglo-Saxon society the lack of many child rulers meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers, but this was compensated for by the increased role played by abbesses of monasteries.[80] Women's influence on politics was particularly fragile, and early medieval authors tended to depict powerful women in a bad light.[note 6][82] Women usually died at considerably younger age than men, primarily owing to infanticide and complications at childbirth. The disparity between the numbers of marriageable women and grown men led to the detailed regulation of legal institutions protecting women's interests, including their right to the Morgengabe, or "morning gift".[83] Early medieval laws acknowledged a man's right to have long-term sexual relationships with women other than his wife, such as concubines, but women were expected to remain faithful. Clerics censured sexual unions outside marriage, and monogamy became also the norm of secular law in the 9th century.[84]

Monks and monasteries had a deep effect on religious and political life, in various cases acting as land trusts for powerful families and important centres of political authority.[121] They were the main and sometimes only outposts of education and literacy in a region. Many of the surviving manuscripts of the Latin classics were copied in monasteries.[122] Monks were also the authors of new works, including history, theology, and other subjects, written by authors such as Bede (d. 735), a native of northern England.[123] The erudite Saxon nun Hrosvitha (d. 1000) authored the first non-liturgical medieval dramas.[124][125] The Byzantine missionary Constantine (d. 869) developed Old Church Slavonic as a new liturgical language, establishing the basis for flourishing Slavic religious literature; around 900 a new script was adopted, now known for Constantine's monastic name as Cyrillic.[126]

Most medieval western thinkers divided the society into three fundamental classes. These were the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. Constituting about 98 per cent of the total population, commoners were mainly rural peasants and artisans. The number of townspeople was growing but never exceeded 10 per cent of the total population.[205][206] Feudalism regulated fundamental social relations in many parts of Europe. In this system, one party granted property, typically land to the other in return for services, mostly of military nature that the recipient, or vassal, had to render to the grantor, or lord.[207][208] In other parts of Europe, such as Germany, Poland, and Hungary, inalienable allods remained the dominant forms of landholding. Their owners owed homage to the king or a higher-ranking aristocrat but their landholding was free of feudal obligations.[209][210]

The expansion of population, greater agricultural productivity and relative political stability laid the foundations for the medieval "Commercial Revolution" in the 11th century.[233] People with surplus cash began investing in commodities like salt, pepper and silk at faraway markets.[234] Rising trade brought new methods of dealing with money, and gold coinage was again minted in Europe, first in Florence and Genoa. New forms of commercial contracts emerged, allowing risk to be shared within the framework of partnerships known as commenda or compagnia.[235] Bills of exchange also appeared, enabling easy transmission of money. As many types of coins were in circulation, money changers facilitated transactions between local and foreign merchants. Loans could also be negotiated with them which gave rise to the development of credit institutions called banks.[236]

With its specific ceremonies and institutions, the crusading movement became a featuring element of medieval life.[note 31] Often extraordinary taxes were levied to finance the crusades, and from 1213 a crusader oath could be fulfilled through a cash payment which gave rise to the sale of plenary indulgences by Church authorities.[330] The crusades brought about the fusion of monastic life with military service within the framework of a new type of monastic order, the military orders. The establishment of the Knights Templar set the precedent, inspiring the militarisation of charitable associations, like the Hospitallers and the Teutonic Knights, and the founding of new orders of warrior monks, like the Order of Calatrava and the Livonian Brothers of the Sword.[331][332] Although established in the crusader states, the Teutonic Order focused much of its activity in the Baltic where they founded their own state in 1226.[333]

The medieval period is frequently caricatured as a "time of barbarism, ignorance, and superstition" that placed "religious authority above personal experience and rational activity" (David Lindberg).[440] This is a legacy from both the Renaissance and Enlightenment when scholars favourably contrasted their intellectual cultures with those of the medieval period. Renaissance scholars saw the Middle Ages as a period of decline from the high culture and civilisation of the Classical world. Enlightenment scholars saw reason as superior to faith, and thus viewed the Middle Ages as a time of ignorance and superstition.[13]

Others argue that reason was generally held in high regard during the Middle Ages. Science historian Edward Grant writes, "If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed in the Age of Reason, they were only made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities".[441] Also, contrary to common belief, Lindberg writes, "The late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the Church and would have regarded himself as free (particularly in the natural sciences) to follow reason and observation wherever they led."[442]

The caricature of the period is also reflected in some more specific notions. One misconception, first propagated in the 19th century, is that all people in the Middle Ages believed that the Earth was flat.[443] This is untrue, as lecturers in the medieval universities commonly argued that evidence showed the Earth was a sphere.[444]

The Internet Medieval Sourcebook is part of the Internet History Sourcebooks Project. The Internet History Sourcebooks Project is located at the History Department of Fordham University, New York. The Internet Medieval Sourcebook, and other medieval components of the project, are located at the Fordham University Center for Medieval Studies.The IHSP recognizes the contribution of Fordham University, the Fordham University History Department, and the Fordham Center for Medieval Studies in providing web space and server support for the project. The IHSP is a project independent of Fordham University. Although the IHSP seeks to follow all applicable copyright law, Fordham University is not the institutional owner, and is not liable as the result of any legal action.

Site Concept and Design: Paul Halsall created 26 Jan 1996: latest revision 5 January 2024 [CV]

MDVL 1000: The Middle Ages, Then and Now, a course designed to introduce students to the medieval past in the modern imagination, was taught for the first time in fall 2022 and fulfills WMU Essential Studies requirements.

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Holy Cross prides itself in an unusually rich faculty researching the medieval and early modern periods. More than 15 faculty members study a period spanning from the fourth to the 17th centuries in Europe, Asia, and the Mediterranean basin, in fields including but not limited to:

The Medieval and Renaissance Studies Program seeks to forge links among these disciplines. A distinctive characteristic of medieval and early modern Western thought is the intellectual struggle for the synthesis of knowledge. Many of the disciplinary boundaries that define contemporary academic study today would have been foreign to people living in these periods. The program will encourage you to think across artificial boundaries and to pursue the same synthesis.

The Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies supports, coordinates and promotes the extraordinary array of scholars, students and resources devoted to medieval and early modern research at SLU. One of the largest in the U.S., the center is home to more than 60 full-time faculty members and numerous students, fellows and visiting scholars. By supporting students, conferences, speakers, fellowships, library acquisitions and professorships, the center enriches the intellectual environment for medievalists and early modernists on campus and around the world. 006ab0faaa