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A contiguous group of binary digits is commonly called a bit string, a bit vector, or a single-dimensional (or multi-dimensional) bit array.A group of eight bits is called one byte, but historically the size of the byte is not strictly defined.[2] Frequently, half, full, double and quadruple words consist of a number of bytes which is a low power of two. A string of four bits is usually a nibble.

The encoding of data by discrete bits was used in the punched cards invented by Basile Bouchon and Jean-Baptiste Falcon (1732), developed by Joseph Marie Jacquard (1804), and later adopted by Semyon Korsakov, Charles Babbage, Herman Hollerith, and early computer manufacturers like IBM. A variant of that idea was the perforated paper tape. In all those systems, the medium (card or tape) conceptually carried an array of hole positions; each position could be either punched through or not, thus carrying one bit of information. The encoding of text by bits was also used in Morse code (1844) and early digital communications machines such as teletypes and stock ticker machines (1870).

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Ralph Hartley suggested the use of a logarithmic measure of information in 1928.[7] Claude E. Shannon first used the word "bit" in his seminal 1948 paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication".[8][9][10] He attributed its origin to John W. Tukey, who had written a Bell Labs memo on 9 January 1947 in which he contracted "binary information digit" to simply "bit".[8] Vannevar Bush had written in 1936 of "bits of information" that could be stored on the punched cards used in the mechanical computers of that time.[11] The first programmable computer, built by Konrad Zuse, used binary notation for numbers.

Bits are transmitted one at a time in serial transmission, and by a multiple number of bits in parallel transmission. A bitwise operation optionally processes bits one at a time. Data transfer rates are usually measured in decimal SI multiples of the unit bit per second (bit/s), such as kbit/s.

In the earliest non-electronic information processing devices, such as Jacquard's loom or Babbage's Analytical Engine, a bit was often stored as the position of a mechanical lever or gear, or the presence or absence of a hole at a specific point of a paper card or tape. The first electrical devices for discrete logic (such as elevator and traffic light control circuits, telephone switches, and Konrad Zuse's computer) represented bits as the states of electrical relays which could be either "open" or "closed". When relays were replaced by vacuum tubes, starting in the 1940s, computer builders experimented with a variety of storage methods, such as pressure pulses traveling down a mercury delay line, charges stored on the inside surface of a cathode-ray tube, or opaque spots printed on glass discs by photolithographic techniques.

In modern semiconductor memory, such as dynamic random-access memory, the two values of a bit may be represented by two levels of electric charge stored in a capacitor. In certain types of programmable logic arrays and read-only memory, a bit may be represented by the presence or absence of a conducting path at a certain point of a circuit. In optical discs, a bit is encoded as the presence or absence of a microscopic pit on a reflective surface. In one-dimensional bar codes, bits are encoded as the thickness of alternating black and white lines.

Multiple bits may be expressed and represented in several ways. For convenience of representing commonly reoccurring groups of bits in information technology, several units of information have traditionally been used. The most common is the unit byte, coined by Werner Buchholz in June 1956, which historically was used to represent the group of bits used to encode a single character of text (until UTF-8 multibyte encoding took over) in a computer[2][13][14][15][16] and for this reason it was used as the basic addressable element in many computer architectures. The trend in hardware design converged on the most common implementation of using eight bits per byte, as it is widely used today.[as of?] However, because of the ambiguity of relying on the underlying hardware design, the unit octet was defined to explicitly denote a sequence of eight bits.

Computers usually manipulate bits in groups of a fixed size, conventionally named "words". Like the byte, the number of bits in a word also varies with the hardware design, and is typically between 8 and 80 bits, or even more in some specialized computers. In the 21st century, retail personal or server computers have a word size of 32 or 64 bits.

When the information capacity of a storage system or a communication channel is presented in bits or bits per second, this often refers to binary digits, which is a computer hardware capacity to store binary data (0 or 1, up or down, current or not, etc.).[17] Information capacity of a storage system is only an upper bound to the quantity of information stored therein. If the two possible values of one bit of storage are not equally likely, that bit of storage contains less than one bit of information. If the value is completely predictable, then the reading of that value provides no information at all (zero entropic bits, because no resolution of uncertainty occurs and therefore no information is available). If a computer file that uses n bits of storage contains only m

In the 1980s, when bitmapped computer displays became popular, some computers provided specialized bit block transfer instructions to set or copy the bits that corresponded to a given rectangular area on the screen.

In most computers and programming languages, when a bit within a group of bits, such as a byte or word, is referred to, it is usually specified by a number from 0 upwards corresponding to its position within the byte or word. However, 0 can refer to either the most or least significant bit depending on the context.

Although a computer might be able to test and manipulate data at the bit level, most systems process and store data in bytes. A byte is a sequence of eight bits that are treated as a single unit. References to a computer's memory and storage are always in terms of bytes. For example, a storage device might be able to store 1 terabyte (TB) of data, which is equal to 1,000,000 megabytes (MB). To bring this into perspective, 1 MB equals 1 million bytes, or 8 million bits. That means a 1 TB drive can store 8 trillion bits of data.

Each bit in a byte is assigned a specific value, which is referred to as the place value. A byte's place values are used to determine the meaning of the byte as a whole, based on the individual bits. In other words, the byte values indicate what character is associated with that byte.

The "S" byte includes four 1 bits and four 0 bits. When added together, the place values associated with 1 bits total 83, which corresponds to the decimal value assigned to the ASCII uppercase "S" character. The place values associated with the 0 bits are not added into the byte total.

Because a single byte supports only 256 unique characters, some character sets use multiple bytes per character. For example, Unicode Transformation Format character sets use between 1 and 4 bytes per character, depending on the specific character and character set. Despite these differences, however, all character sets rely on the convention of 8 bits per byte, with each bit in either a 1 or 0 state.

The term octet is sometimes used instead of byte, and the term nibble is occasionally used when referring to a 4-bit unit, although it's not as common as it once was. In addition, the term word is often used to describe two or more consecutive bytes. A word is usually 16, 32 or 64 bits long.

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Turned out GREAT after a trial & error.

My first attempt I took off too soon (oops went by time rather than temp).

It was still soft, BUT I read a comment saying you could just put it back in the pot and heat it back up.

I did this and after whisking a lot to get it to combine again, got it up to temperature and now I have toffee bits!

Entertaining, concise, and relentlessly probing, City of Bits is a comprehensive introduction to a new type of city, an increasingly important system of virtual spaces interconnected by the information superhighway. William Mitchell makes extensive use of practical examples and illustrations in a technically well-grounded yet accessible examination of architecture and urbanism in the context of the digital telecommunications revolution, the ongoing miniaturization of electronics, the commodification of bits, and the growing domination of software over materialized form.

Because bits are so small, you rarely work with information one bit ata time. Bits are usually assembled into a group of eight to form abyte. A byte contains enough information to store asingle ASCII character, like "h".

Note: The names and abbreviations for numbers ofbytes are easily confused with the notations for bits. Theabbreviations for numbers of bits use a lower-case "b" instead of anupper-case "B". Since one byte is made up of eight bits, thisdifference can be significant. For example, if a broadband Internetconnection is advertised with a download speed of3.0 Mbps, its speed is 3.0 megabitsper second, or 0.375 megabytes per second (whichwould be abbreviated as 0.375 MBps). Bits and bit rates(bits over time, as in bits per second [bps]) are most commonly usedto describe connection speeds, so pay particular attention whencomparing Internet connection providers and services. 2351a5e196