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Shankara has an unparallelled status in the tradition of Advaita Vedanta,[13][21] but his influence on Hindu intellectual thought has been questioned.[22][23][24] Until the 10th century Shankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary Maana Mira,[23][25] and there is no mention of him in concurring Hindu, Buddhist or Jain sources until the 11th century.[26] The popular image Shankara started to take shape in the 14th century, centuries after his death, when Sringeri matha started to receive patronage from the kings of the Vijayanagara Empire[25][27][28][29] and shifted their allegiance from advaitic Agamic Saivism to Brahmanical Advaita orthodoxy.[30] Hagiographies dating from the 14th-17th centuries deified him as a ruler-renunciate, travelling on a digvijaya (conquest of the four quarters)[31][32] across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his philosophy, defeating his opponents in theological debates.[33][34] These hagiographies portray him as founding four mathas ("monasteries"), and Adi Shankara also came to be regarded as the organiser of the Dashanami monastic order, and the unifier of the Shanmata tradition of worship.

Reliable information on Shankara's actual life is scanty.[35] His existing biographies are not historical accurate documents, but politically motivated hagiographies which were all written several centuries after his time and abound in legends and improbable events.[36] Several different dates have been proposed for Shankara.[37] While the Advaita-tradition assigns him to the 5th century BCE, the scholarly-accepted dating places Shankara to be a scholar from the first half of the 8th century CE.[13][38]

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The authenticity of Shankara being the author of Vivekacmai[61] has been questioned,[10][11] though it is "so closely interwoven into the spiritual heritage of Shankara that any analysis of his perspective which fails to consider [this work] would be incomplete."[11][note 14] According to Grimes, "modern scholars tend to reject its authenticity as a work by Shankara," while "traditionalists tend to accept it."[62] Nevertheless, does Grimes argue that "there is still a likelihood that akara is the author of the Vivekacmai," [62] noting that "it differs in certain respects from his other works in that it addresses itself to a different audience and has a different emphasis and purpose."[63]

According to Koller, using ideas in ancient Indian texts, Shankara systematized the foundation for Advaita Vednta in the 8th century, reforming Badarayana's Vednta tradition.[9] According to Mayeda, Shankara represents a turning point in the development of Vednta,[69] yet he also notices that it is only since Deussens's praise that Shankara "has usually been regarded as the greatest philosopher of India."[71] Mayeda further notes that Shankara was primarily concerned with moksha, "and not with the establishment of a complete system of philosophy or theology,"[71] following Potter, who qualifies Shankara as a "speculative philosopher."[72] Lipner notes that Shankara's "main literary approach was commentarial and hence perforce disjointed rather than procedurally systematic [...] though a systematic philosophy can be derived from Samkara's thought."[73]

Shankara has been described as influenced by Shaivism and Shaktism, but his works and philosophy suggest greater overlap with Vaishnavism, influence of Yoga school of Hinduism, but most distinctly express his Advaitin convictions with a monistic view of spirituality,[38][9][74] and his commentaries mark a turn from realism to idealism.[75][76]

According to Shankara, the one unchanging entity (Brahman) alone is real, while changing entities do not have absolute existence. Shankara's primary objective was to explain how moksha is attained in this life by recognizing the true identity of jivatman as Atman-Brahman,[9] as mediated by the Mahvkyas, especially Tat Tvam Asi, "That you are." Correct knowledge of jivatman and Atman-Brahman is the attainment of Brahman, immortality,[77] and leads to moksha (liberation) from suffering[note 17] and samsara, the cycle of rebirth[78] This is stated by Shankara as follows:

Stcherbatsky in 1927 criticized Shankara for demanding the use of logic from Madhyamika Buddhists, while himself resorting to revelation as a source of knowledge.[15][note 19] Sircar in 1933 offered a different perspective and stated, "Sankara recognizes the value of the law of contrariety and self-alienation from the standpoint of idealistic logic; and it has consequently been possible for him to integrate appearance with reality."[88]

Shankara considered the purity and steadiness of mind achieved in Yoga as an aid to gaining moksha knowledge, but such yogic state of mind cannot in itself give rise to such knowledge.[95] To Shankara, that knowledge of Brahman springs only from inquiry into the teachings of the Upanishads.[96] The method of yoga, encouraged in Shankara's teachings notes Comans, includes withdrawal of mind from sense objects as in Patanjali's system, but it is not complete thought suppression, instead it is a "meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal, leading to contemplation of oneself as the most universal, namely, Consciousness".[97] Describing Shankara's style of yogic practice, Comans writes:

Shankara rejected those yoga system variations that suggest complete thought suppression leads to liberation, as well the view that the Shrutis teach liberation as something apart from the knowledge of the oneness of the Self. Knowledge alone and insights relating to true nature of things, taught Shankara, is what liberates. He placed great emphasis on the study of the Upanisads, emphasizing them as necessary and sufficient means to gain Self-liberating knowledge. Sankara also emphasized the need for and the role of Guru (Acharya, teacher) for such knowledge.[97]

Shankara cautioned against cherrypicking a phrase or verse out of context from Vedic literature, and remarks in the opening chapter of his Brahmasutra-Bhasya that the Anvaya (theme or purport) of any treatise can only be correctly understood if one attends to the Samanvayat Tatparya Linga, that is six characteristics of the text under consideration: (1) the common in Upakrama (introductory statement) and Upasamhara (conclusions); (2) Abhyasa (message repeated); (3) Apurvata (unique proposition or novelty); (4) Phala (fruit or result derived); (5) Arthavada (explained meaning, praised point) and (6) Yukti (verifiable reasoning).[98][99] While this methodology has roots in the theoretical works of Nyaya school of Hinduism, Shankara consolidated and applied it with his unique exegetical method called Anvaya-Vyatireka, which states that for proper understanding one must "accept only meanings that are compatible with all characteristics" and "exclude meanings that are incompatible with any".[100][101]

The longest chapter of Shankara's Upadesasahasri, chapter 18, "That Art Thou," is devoted to considerations on the insight "I am ever-free, the existent" (sat), and the identity expressed in Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 in the mahavakya (great sentence) "tat tvam asi", "that thou art."[119][120] In this statement, according to Shankara, tat refers to Sat,[120] "the Existent"[110][111][121][122] Existence, Being,[123] or Brahman,[124] the Real, the "Root of the world,"[120][note 23] the true essence or root or origin of everything that exists.[111][121][123] "Tvam" refers to one's real I, pratyagatman or inner Self,[125] the "direct Witness within everything,"[126] "free from caste, family, and purifying ceremonies,"[127] the essence, Atman, which the individual at the core is.[128][129] As Shankara states in the Upadesasahasri:

In the Upadesasahasri Shankara, Shankara is ambivalent on the need for meditation on the Upanishadic mahavyaka. He states that "right knowledge arises at the moment of hearing,"[135] and rejects prasamcaksa or prasamkhyana meditation, that is, meditation on the meaning of the sentences, and in Up.II.3 recommends parisamkhyana,[136] separating Atman from everything that is not Atman, that is, the sense-objects and sense-organs, and the pleasant and unpleasant things and merit and demerit connected with them.[137] Yet, Shankara then concludes with declaring that only Atman exists, stating that "all the sentences of the Upanishads concerning non-duality of Atman should be fully contemplated, should be contemplated."[138] As Mayeda states, "how they [prasamcaksa or prasamkhyana versus parisamkhyana] differ from each other in not known."[139]

Shankara, in his text Upadesasahasri, discourages ritual worship such as oblations to Deva (God), because that assumes the Self within is different from the Brahman.[note 4][note 5] The "doctrine of difference" is wrong, asserts Shankara, because, "he who knows the Brahman is one and he is another, does not know Brahman".[147][148] The false notion that Atman is different from Brahman[131] is connected with the novice's conviction that (Upadeshasahasri II.1.25)

...I am one [and] He is another; I am ignorant, experience pleasure and pain, am bound and a transmigrator [whereas] he is essentially different from me, the god not subject to transmigration. By worshipping Him with oblation, offerings, homage and the like through the [performance of] the actions prescribed for [my] class and stage of life, I wish to get out of the ocean of transmigratory existence. How am I he?[149]

Recognizing oneself as "the Existent-Brahman," which is mediated by scriptural teachings, is contrasted with the notion of "I act," which is mediated by relying on sense-perception and the like.[150] According to Shankara, the statement "Thou art That" "remove[s] the delusion of a hearer,"[151] "so through sentences as "Thou art That" one knows one's own Atman, the witness of all internal organs,"[152] and not from any actions.[153][note 25] With this realization, the performance of rituals is prohibited, "since [the use of] rituals and their requisites is contradictory to the realization of the identity [of Atman] with the highest Atman."[155] e24fc04721