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Because many CVD patients receiving rehabilitation suffer from cognitive and emotional problems in addition to impaired physical functioning [1], relaxation techniques, which do not require patient training or active effort, can be very useful. Music therapy enhances the state of psychological and physiological relaxation through passive listening [2] and is thought to contribute to the mental and physical wellbeing of patients. For example, calm music can alleviate stress [3], and incorporating music into rehabilitation programs can improve depression, mobility, and cognitive function [4]. However, owing to individual variations in music preference, even in the same genre, it has been difficult to examine the precise effects of music on mental status [5].

The individual relaxation response to music is affected by music genre, which is composed of different basic compositional elements, such as melody, rhythm, harmony, and tonality. Previous research has shown relaxation effects of classical music at both the subjective and objective levels [6]. Additionally, studies comparing classical baroque and heavy metal music have indicated that the different rhythms have different effects on autonomic nervous system (ANS) function [7, 8]. Classical baroque music has also been found to decrease activity in the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) [9]. However, the precise effects of specific compositional elements of music on the ANS and relaxation responses have not been clarified.

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Experimental procedure. One of three musical stimuli (OM, HFM, and LFM) was selected in a counterbalanced random order. The participants were asked to complete the semantic differential questionnaire after listening to each piece of music. HFM: music with an amplified high-frequency component; LFM: music with an amplified low-frequency component; OM: original music.

Because HF components also respond to activity in the respiratory center, caution is required when measuring HRV [15]. To control for respiratory condition, we discontinued the experiment if a participant had a maximum respiratory interval shorter than 7 seconds, respiratory frequency below nine breaths/min, or breathing rate greater than 24 breaths/min.

After GEE analysis, we further investigated the differences in the modification of stress recovery produced by frequency modulated music clips. Specifically, we used stress recovery ratios, that is, the ratio of the HRV parameters during MS and WN conditions, with that during the SN condition as a baseline:

To further clarify the role of frequency components in relaxation, we analyzed stress recovery ratios for HFnu, LFnu, LF/HF ratio, and HR. The stress recovery ratios are summarized in Figure 2. The stress recovery ratio of HFnu for HFM was significantly larger than that for LFM (p = 0.049). However, the differences between those for HFM and OM and those for LFM and OM were not significantly different. We found no significant differences in the ratios of the other HRV indices among the three MS tasks.

The LF/HF ratio, which reflects SNS activity, increased with the stress stimulation and decreased with the MS, as expected. The SNS activity response plateaus approximately 90 seconds after exposure to an auditory stress stimulus [31], and the nervous response brought about by music recognition appears after listening to music for approximately 150 seconds [32]. Because the MS used in this study was 224 seconds long, we expected that the time window of the present experimental paradigm was suitable for the SNS response. Additionally, the effects of stress recovery modification in the SNS, if any, were likely minimal. Because HRV is a more sensitive reflection of PNS compared with SNS changes [33], HRV may not have reflected changes in the LF/HF ratio, which is an index of SNS activity. Accordingly, in future research, it will be necessary to evaluate other indices of SNS activity, such as electrodermal response [34].

Complex compound sound information, containing high-frequency components and music, is transmitted to the primary auditory cortex through the inferior colliculus [35]. However, the exact anatomical mechanisms by which ANS activity is modulated have not been clarified. Further studies with animal models or human neuroimaging might be necessary to address this issue.

Previous studies have reported large individual variations in HRV analysis [37]. Accordingly, we failed to observe an interaction between AS and MS. One possible solution may be the use of a nonmusic control for MS as a baseline stimulus. However, the subjective impression elicited by MS and a nonmusic stimulus would be different, making simple and direct comparisons between MS and nonmusic controls difficult.

High-quality digital sound sources with inaudible high-frequency components (above 20 kHz) have become available because of recent advances in information technology. Listening to such sounds has been shown to increase the -band power of an electroencephalogram (EEG). The present study scrutinized the time course of this effect by recording EEG along with autonomic measures (skin conductance level and heart rate) and facial electromyograms (corrugator supercilii and zygomaticus major). Twenty university students (19-24 years old) listened to two types of a 200-s musical excerpt (J. S. Bach's French Suite No. 5) with or without inaudible high-frequency components using a double-blind method. They were asked to rate the sound quality and to judge which excerpt contained high-frequency components. High- EEG power (10.5-13 Hz) was larger for the excerpt with high-frequency components than for the excerpt without them. This effect was statistically significant only in the last quarter of the period (150-200 s). Participants were not able to distinguish between the excerpts, which did not produce any discernible differences in subjective, autonomic, and facial muscle measures. This study shows that inaudible high-frequency components have an impact on human brain activity without conscious awareness. Unlike a standard test for sound quality, at least 150 s of exposure is required to examine this effect in future research.

Background: Human hearing is sensitive to sounds from as low as 20 Hz to as high as 20,000 Hz in normal ears. However, clinical tests of human hearing rarely include extended high-frequency (EHF) threshold assessments, at frequencies extending beyond 8000 Hz. EHF thresholds have been suggested for use monitoring the earliest effects of noise on the inner ear, although the clinical usefulness of EHF threshold testing is not well established for this purpose.

Results: EHF thresholds closely matched standard reference thresholds [ANSI S3.6 (1996) Annex C]. There were statistically reliable threshold differences in participants who used music players, with 3-6 dB worse thresholds at the highest test frequencies (10-16 kHz) in participants who reported long-term use of music player devices (>5 yr), or higher listening levels during music player use.

Conclusions: It should be possible to detect small changes in high-frequency hearing for patients or participants who undergo repeated testing at periodic intervals. However, the increased population-level variability in thresholds at the highest frequencies will make it difficult to identify the presence of small but potentially important deficits in otherwise normal-hearing individuals who do not have previously established baseline data.

Frequency, sometimes referred to as pitch, is the number of times per second that a sound pressure wave repeats itself. A drum beat has a much lower frequency than a whistle, and a bullfrog call has a lower frequency than a cricket. The lower the frequency, the fewer the oscillations. High frequencies produce more oscillations. The units of frequency are called hertz (Hz). Humans with normal hearing can hear sounds between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. Frequencies above 20,000 Hz are known as ultrasound. When your dog tilts his head to listen to seemingly imaginary sounds, he is tuning in to ultrasonic frequencies, as high as 45,000 Hz. Bats can hear at among the highest frequencies of any mammal, up to 120,000 Hz. They use ultrasonic vocalizations as sonar, allowing them to pursue tiny insects in the dark without bumping into objects.

At the other end of the spectrum are very low-frequency sounds (below 20 Hz), known as infrasound. Elephants use infrasound for communication, making sounds too low for humans to hear. Because low frequency sounds travel farther than high frequency ones, infrasound is ideal for communicating over long distances.

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The audio spectrum range spans from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz and can be effectively broken down into seven different frequency bands, with each band having a different impact on the total sound.

Many instruments struggle to enter this frequency range, with the exception of a few bass-heavy instruments, such as the bass guitar which has the lowest achievable pitch of 41 Hz. It is difficult to hear the sub-bass range at low volumes due to the Fletcher Munson curves.

The bass range determines how fat or thin the sound is. The fundamental notes of rhythm are centered on this area. Most bass signals in modern music tracks lie around the 90-200 Hz area. The frequencies around 250 Hz can add a feeling of warmth to the bass without loss of definition.

The midrange determines how prominent an instrument is in the mix. Boosting around 1000 Hz can give instruments a horn-like quality. Excess output at this range can sound tinny and may cause ear fatigue. If boosting in this area, be very cautious, especially on vocals. The ear is particularly sensitive to how the human voice sounds and its frequency coverage. 17dc91bb1f