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Charge and discharge rates of a battery are governed by C-rates. The capacity of a battery is commonly rated at 1C, meaning that a fully charged battery rated at 1Ah should provide 1A for one hour. The same battery discharging at 0.5C should provide 500mA for two hours, and at 2C it delivers 2A for 30 minutes. Losses at fast discharges reduce the discharge time and these losses also affect charge times.

A C-rate of 1C is also known as a one-hour discharge; 0.5C or C/2 is a two-hour discharge and 0.2C or C/5 is a 5-hour discharge. Some high-performance batteries can be charged and discharged above 1C with moderate stress. Table 1 illustrates typical times at various C-rates.

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The battery capacity, or the amount of energy a battery can hold, can be measured with a battery analyzer. (See BU-909: Battery Test Equipment) The analyzer discharges the battery at a calibrated current while measuring the time until the end-of-discharge voltage is reached. For lead acid, the end-of-discharge is typically 1.75V/cell, for NiCd/NiMH 1.0V/cell and for Li-ion 3.0V/cell. If a 1Ah battery provides 1A for one hour, an analyzer displaying the results in percentage of the nominal rating will show 100 percent. If the discharge lasts 30 minutes before reaching the end-of-discharge cut-off voltage, then the battery has a capacity of 50 percent. A new battery is sometimes overrated and can produce more than 100 percent capacity; others are underrated and never reach 100 percent, even after priming.

When discharging a battery with a battery analyzer capable of applying different C rates, a higher C rate will produce a lower capacity reading and vice versa. By discharging the 1Ah battery at the faster 2C-rate, or 2A, the battery should ideally deliver the full capacity in 30 minutes. The sum should be the same since the identical amount of energy is dispensed over a shorter time. In reality, internal losses turn some of the energy into heat and lower the resulting capacity to about 95 percent or less. Discharging the same battery at 0.5C, or 500mA over 2 hours, will likely increase the capacity to above 100 percent.

To obtain a reasonably good capacity reading, manufacturers commonly rate alkaline and lead acid batteries at a very low 0.05C, or a 20-hour discharge. Even at this slow discharge rate, lead acid seldom attains a 100 percent capacity as the batteries are overrated. Manufacturers provide capacity offsets to adjust for the discrepancies if discharged at a higher C rate than specified. (See also BU-503: How to Calculate Battery Runtime) Figure 2 illustrates the discharge times of a lead acid battery at various loads expressed in C-rate.

While lead- and nickel-based batteries can be discharged at a high rate, the protection circuit prevents the Li-ion Energy Cell from discharging above 1C. The Power Cell with nickel, manganese and/or phosphate active material can tolerate discharge rates of up to 10C and the current threshold is set higher accordingly.

The material on Battery University is based on the indispensable new 4th edition of "Batteries in a Portable World - A Handbook on Rechargeable Batteries for Non-Engineers" which is available for order through Amazon.com.

The energy capacity of any battery is a function of discharge rate. Fundamentally, this is true because there is no such thing as zero internal resistance. It's not that somehow there is less stored energy at higher current more of the available energy gets converted to heat and is there for not available as electrical power at the terminals. Even within lithium cells there are so called power cells that are optimized for high discharge rates and energy cells that are optimized for larger capacity but of necessity at lower rates.

Smaller batteries are commonly rated at the 1C rating, which is also known as the one-hour rate. For example, if your battery is labeled 3000mAh at the one-hour rate, then the 1C rating is 3000mAh. You will generally find the C rate of your battery on its label and the battery data sheet. Different battery chemistries will sometimes display different C rates; for instance, lead acid batteries are generally rated at a very low discharge rate, often a 0.05C or 20-hour rate. The chemistry and design of your battery will determine the maximum C rate of your battery. Lithium batteries, for instance, can tolerate much higher discharging C Rates than other chemistries such as alkaline. If you cannot find the battery C rating on the label or datasheet we advise contacting the battery manufacturer directly.

Most jump starters can require up to 80C Rate discharge and in the RC industry there are high-rate discharge batteries used up to 50C Rate! There are some batteries on the market that claim even higher C Rates based on maximum pulse discharge rates, which require the battery to reach full discharge in just a few seconds. However most applications, do not need such high C Rates.

Not sure whether this is already common knowledge, but I couldn't find any info on it so I experimented a bit myself. I was curious how the "Charge rate increased by X%" gear affected skills which say they gain a set amount of "Bonus" charge (E.G. Dynamo Field, Shield Bash, Blazing Pillar, Glaive Sweep, etc.)

Basically I checked how many casts of Dynamo Field on the town dummy it took to fill my Engineer's Charge Bar, then equipped a ton of "Charge rate increased by X%" gear until I was supposedly gaining +81% Charge and checked again. In both cases, it took exactly 18 casts to fill the bar. My rank 5 Dynamo Field says it gains 0.28 charge per enemy, so 0.28 x 18 = 5.04 matches up with the 5 Charge pips on the Engineer Charge Bar.

I haven't tested this with all the other skills that gain a set amount of charge, but I assume it will work the same way. I thought this might be helpful for anyone considering what type of gear or method to use when looking to fill their charge bar.

"Charge rate increased by X%" gear seems to only affect the charge you gain from dealing direct damage, not the BONUS charge you gain from skills which specifically gain a set amount of charge.

EDIT: yParticle has also tested and found that even for skills which gain Charge from dealing Damage and also gain Bonus Charge, + charge rate gear will only boost the charge you are gaining from dealing damage, never the Bonus Charge.

(Editing this in later cause it's something I had thought to include but forgot) For Thermal Resistance you won't want to go further down than 65 ideally. At 65 TR you can fire 8 uncharged shots in a row before heat capping (still 8 at 80 TR). Failing that you absolutely don't want any less than 48 TR. At 47 you will only be able to fire one uncharged shot after one tick of cooling down from 100.

The charge rate modifier on the plasma gun affects the damage you deal with light shots. You will deal less damage with a charge rate below 69%, the most damage with around 71%, and the least damage with a super high charge rate. It can potentially kill a breakpoint, namely one tapping a trapper in volley without a damage perk (on a 80 damage 80 stopping power gun) with a light shot.

I showcase evidence of this in this video. The trapper example was done with 2 plasmas with 80/80 damage and stopping power, one had 71% charge rate the other had 79%. I also showcase the effects of volatile.

Level 2 equipment offers higher-rate AC charging through 240V (in residential applications) or 208V (in commercial applications) electrical service, and is common for home, workplace, and public charging. Level 2 chargers can charge a BEV to 80 percent from empty in 4-10 hours and a PHEV in 1-2 hours.

Direct current fast charging (DCFC) equipment offers rapid charging along heavy-traffic corridors at installed stations. DCFC equipment can charge a BEV to 80 percent in just 20 minutes to 1 hour. Most PHEVs currently on the market do not work with fast chargers.

Level 2 and DCFC equipment has been deployed at various public locations including, for example, at grocery stores, theaters, or coffee shops. When selecting a charger type, consider its voltages, resulting charging and vehicle dwell times, and estimated up-front and ongoing costs.

FHWA, with support from the Joint Office of Energy & Transportation, unveiled new national standards for federally funded EV chargers in February 2023. These new standards aim to ensure that charging is a predictable and reliable experience for EV drivers. This includes ensuring that drivers can easily find a charger, do not need multiple apps and/or accounts to charge, chargers work when drivers need them to, and are designed to be compatible in the future with forward-looking charging capabilities.

The rule establishes minimum technical standards for charging stations, including required number of charging ports, connector types, power level, availability, payment methods, uptime/reliability, EV charger infrastructure network connectivity, and interoperability, among other standards and requirements.

The below table summarizes the typical power output, charging time, and locations for PHEVs and BEVs for the different charger types. For more information on the power requirements of different chargers, see the Utility Planning section of the toolkit.

1Note that charging speed is affected by many factors, including the charger manufacturer, condition, and age; air temperature; vehicle battery capacity; and vehicle age and condition.. e24fc04721