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For example, the frontal lobes are the area of the brain right behind the eyes that controls our ability to focus, pay attention, be motivated and other aspects of personality. Therefore, when cells in the frontal lobes of the brain are lost, people are less able to plan and stay focused. They are often less motivated and become more passive. The frontal lobes also control our impulses. Someone with frontal lobe deficits may act rudely or insensitively.

One of the most important parts of the brain in terms of the threat system is the Amygdala. The amygdala is shaped like a little almond and lies deep in the brainstem in the limbic system, which consists of the hippocampus (responsible for memory), and the hypothalamus (which secretes hormones that regulate important bodily functions including the fight-flight response). The primary role of the Amygdalae (we actually have a pair of amygdala) lies with the processing of information in order determine whether or it needs to signal onwards to the limbic system that the brain needs to take action and do something.

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Furthermore, the excitement phase results in an increase in heart and breathing rates as well as in blood pressure, triggered by several nuclei, the brainstem, and hypothalamic medial preoptic area. Vasocongestion of the skin leads to sexual flush (mostly chest and neck), which usually disappears soon after orgasm occurs. Orgasm, the conclusion of the plateau phase, is characterized by quick jerky muscle contraction of the lower pelvic muscles surrounding the anus and primary sexual organs accompanied by an euphoric sensation and a further increase in heart rate (Masters & Johnson, 1966). Nonetheless, the apex of the arousal phase cannot be considered a simple physical sequence of happenings. In fact, it is widely known that sexual dysfunction (i.e., anorgasmia) seriously affects individuals' quality of life and psyche.

Hypothalamic releasing factors in turn stimulate or inhibit the secretion of pituitary hormones, influencing body temperature, hunger, thirst, circadian cycles, and sexual drive (Sam & Frohman, 2008). showed that small lesions in the medial preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus (MPOA/AH) temporarily affected the sexual drive in rats, while larger lesions had permanent effects on sexual behavior. Although MPOA stimulation modulates erection and coordinates autonomic events associated with sexual response, the exact role of the MPOA/AH in sexual behavior has been controversial for a long time. Animal studies often reported contradictory results concerning the leading role of MPOA in sexual motivation and/or in sexual consummation (Davidson, 1966; Hughes, Everitt, & Herbert, 1990; Paredes, Tzschentke, & Nakach, 1998). It has recently been proposed that the MPOA is likely to receive information relayed from the hippocampus via the lateral septum and from the amygdala via the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST; Pfaus, 2009). Signals are further processed by the periaqueductal gray, which projects into the brainstem nuclei. The arrival of sexual stimuli to the MPOA triggers sexual motivation once they are further integrated with information relayed by the ventromedial, suprachiasmatic, infundibular, and ventral premammillary nuclei.

Neuroimaging studies have demonstrated that human sexual response involves a variety of cortical and subcortical brain areas, showing very similar activation patterns across gender and sexual preferences.

The mechanisms underlying generalized arousal are complex and involve many cerebral circuits (Devidze, Lee, Zhou, & Pfaff, 2006). The ascending pathways have five major neurochemical systems that contribute to the arousal of the forebrain, that is, those signaled by norepinephrine, DA, serotonin, acetylcholine, and histamine, while the role of glutamate is less widely recognized.

The physiological underpinning of libido seems to depend on androgenic actions on the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, an integration center between the central and peripheral autonomic nervous systems that, despite its projections to many important sexual brain areas, controls penile erection (Morales et al., 2004, 2009).

The somatic marker theory provides a neuroanatomical framework for understanding the impact of emotions on decision-making and behavior in general [24]. Altogether, vmPFC is the key place where all somatic markers are generated from secondary emotions. The vmPFC receives projections from all sensory modalities, both directly and indirectly. This is also the only part of the frontal lobe associated with ANS that also has extensive reciprocal connections with the hippocampus and amygdala. The vmPFC mediates at least three broad domains of behavior: a reward-based decision-making process, which arises through interactions with the ventral striatum and amygdala; regulation of emotions with negative valence, which occurs through interactions with the amygdala, bed nucleus of stria terminalis (BNST), periaqueductal gray (PAG), hippocampus, and the dorsal part of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC); and multiple aspects of social cognition, such as recognition of emotional facial expressions, ability to attribute mental states (beliefs, intentions, desires, emotions, knowledge) to oneself and others (also called the theory of mind), processing relevant self-related information through interactions with posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), precuneus, dorsomedial PFC (dmPFC) and amygdala [53]. Therefore, injury or pathological changes to the vmPFC lead to more or less serious difficulties in social behavior and decision-making, which also impairs everyday functioning. The influence of somatic markers can occur on multiple levels, both conscious and unconscious, and involves different parts of the brain: vmPFC, amygdala, somatosensory cortex, insula, basal ganglia, ACC, brainstem, as well as humoral signals and afferent pathways signaling bodily states. Primary emotions are innate and crucial at a time when the ventromedial OFC is immature. When primary emotions occur in a certain context, they automatically provoke an innate response consisting of two stages: first, a specific feeling that has either a positive (pleasant) or negative (unpleasant) valence; and second, as a separate process, somatic markers will help select the best possible response, that is, the behavior among all the possible options available at that time. These automatic responses are first controlled by the amygdala, which matures before the cerebral cortex of the frontal lobe. When it comes to secondary emotions, somatic markers are generated by the vmPFC, which categorizes and associates individual situations with somatic states, meaning that these reactions are based on both feelings and previous experiences of individual emotions. Thus, somatic markers can arise on the basis of both primary and secondary emotions, and they can be understood as inducers of certain responses that help us and guide us in decision-making and social behavior. In this sense, changes in somatic and visceral states represent anticipation of what certain external stimuli could cause to our body (harm it or be useful), so proper anticipation of the effect of such stimuli will increase the likelihood of survival in different contexts. In uncertain situations, somatic markers will limit the number of possible choices and thus facilitate and speed up making the right decisions. In conclusion, the somatic marker theory proposes that the amygdala mediates somatic markers as a response to generated primary emotions, whereas vmPFC is a key hub where features of a given external stimulus are converted into the visceral states associated with the biological importance of that stimulus [54].

Emotion categories are as real as any other construct that requires awareness to exist. According to the theory of constructed emotion, emotions such as fear, anger, or sadness are socially and experientially constructed categories and therefore, vary with culture and time [4]. In neuroscientific jargon, construct refers to a group of distributed activity patterns of specific neuronal populations. An individual emotion is constructed in the same way as all the other perceptions, through information flow within neural circuits. Consequently, the brain neither specializes in processing emotions nor are emotions innate. Instead, it is the innate ability of the brain to create assumptions or predictions to construct an emotional episode depending on a given situation, as is so for many other general processes related to a particular domain (e.g., memory, perception, or attention) [4]. In other words, the relationship between the brain and emotions should be observed through a prism of the understanding that a given brain structure or area can have multiple functions, depending on the currently active functional network and co-activation patterns in all active areas at a given time [66].

The internal model that the brain creates to maintain allostasis is at the heart of the constructed emotion theory. Allostasis, unlike homeostasis, refers to the effective allocation of resources for changing the physiological and behavioral systems within an organism to achieve homeostasis, so that the organism can grow, survive, and reproduce [67]. Allostasis is not a body state, but a process through which the brain regulates bodily functions according to cost/benefit criterion, requiring the ability to anticipate future bodily needs and meet them before they arise [67]. The brain monitors many variables and integrates their values with previous knowledge and experience to anticipate needs and set priorities. As such, the brain is not a passive organ responding only to input signals and acting on the basis of the negative feedback principle (as is the case with most homeostatic mechanisms), yet it actively constructs perceptions based on internal models, predicting future input signals and calculating prediction error (i.e., differences between predictions and input signals). e24fc04721