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Reportedly assembled in the mid-to-late 1600s, the Amazons were known for their indifference to pain and fierceness in battle, as well as having great socio-political influence over their kingdom. To protect and enrich their own empire, there were periods when the Amazons cooperated with European colonialists, selling captured enemies from regional scuffles in exchange for weaponry and goods.

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The military history of the Mali Empire is that of the armed forces of the Mali Empire, which dominated Western Africa from the mid 13th to the late 15th century. The military culture of the empire's driving force, Mandinka people, influenced many later states in West Africa including break-away powers such as the Songhay and Jolof empires. Institutions from the Mali Empire also survived in the 19th century army of Samory Ture who saw himself as the heir to Old Mali's legacy.

A study of the Mali Empire's military is really a study of Mandinka military culture. The Mandinka were early adopters of iron in West Africa, and the role of blacksmiths was one of great religious and military prestige among them. Manipulation of iron had allowed the Mandinka to spread out over the borders of modern-day Mali and Guinea by the 11th century. During this time, the Mandinka came into contact with the Soninke of the formidable Wagadou Empire. The Soninke formed the first major organized fighting force in West Africa, and the Mandekalu became a major source of slaves for the empire. To combat Wagadou's slave raids, the Mandekalu took refuge in the mountains between Kri and Kri-Koro around Niagassala.[3] There they used the high ground thatcould provide a better view of arriving armies.[4]

Historical researchers also claim the technical reason for the empire's rapid expansion was supported by the strong blacksmith and metallurgy culture of Manden. Both smelting and smithing required large quantities of wood to make charcoal for fuel. The blacksmith's activity helped the warriors by smithing fine weapons made of metals, as well as extending the boundaries of their empire by moving further and further afield in search of wood to sustain their industry. The deforestation that resulted from extensive smelting and concentrated smithing has consequently flattened the woodland savannah soils and also inadvertently helped the cavalry soldiers of Manden to move easier in spacious fields, thus creating symbiosis between the cavalry and blacksmiths.[5]

Mansa Sundjata is credited with organizing the early empire's army into 16 clans whose leaders were to protect the new state.[7] These 16 were known as the "ton-ta-jon-ta-ni-woro", which translates as "the sixteen slaves that carry the bow".[8] These "slaves" were actually high nobles dedicated to serve Mali by bringing the bow or quiver (traditional symbols of military force) to bear against the emperor's enemies. Each member was known as a ton-tigi or ton-tigui ("quiver-master") and was expected to fight as cavalry commanders.[2]

The ton-tigi, for all intents and purposes, were feudal lords and the only men in the early empire that could afford horses.[12] Infantry leadership, however, fell to the kl -koun ("war-head"). A kl-koun commanded a unit of infantry known as a kl -bolo ("war-arm"). The men under a kl-koun's command were all horon ("freemen"), like the ton-tigi and kl-koun.[15] At least initially, jonow ("slaves") were barred from military service except as military equipment carriers for the ton-tigi. It was not until after Mali's zenith that jonow battalions were utilized.[2]

The exclusion of jonow from the early imperial army increased pressure on the horon to serve. Each tribe in the empire was expected to furnish a quota of horon to fight for the mansa.[16] The core of the army, which may have reached 90,000 men,[17] was Mandinka. However, the mansa reserved the right to call up levies from conquered peoples on the rare occasion this was needed. All horon were expected to arm themselves. It was a point of honor to appear with your own weapons,[18] some of which might be family heirlooms.[19] Javelins called "tamba" were thrown out ahead of close-combat.[12] The majority of infantry were bowmen who used Soninke knowledge of poisons to make up for their arrow's lack of force.[20] Stabbing spears and reed shields were also used by horon, while a kl-koun might be armed with a locally made saber. Leather helmets were manufactured locally for both cavalry and infantry.[21]

The military culture and organization of the Mali Empire grew in power and sophistication until reaching its peak between 1250 and 1450.[22] This period was marked by a firmer, more complex system of military roles in the empire. The reasons for the changes in imperial Mali's army are not known for certain, but it is likely that the expanding size of the state had much to do with its transformation.

By the time Ibn Battuta visited the Mali Empire during the reign of Mansa Suleyman, an elite corps among the military was present at court.[23] These men were an outgrowth of the ton-tigui that had fought alongside Sundjata and his immediate predecessors known as the farari ("braves").[24] Each farariya ("brave") was a cavalry commander with officers and warriors beneath him. However, the roles of the farariya were not all identical.[25] Farari served as ton-tigi of the Gbara,[26] governors of far off provinces or simply field commanders.[27] Many forms of the farariya titles would be used by Mali's successor states such as Songhay.[28]

The role of the sofa in Malian warfare changed dramatically after the reign of Sundjata from mere baggage handler to full-fledged warriors. A sofa was equipped by the state, whereas the horon brought their weapons. Sofa armies could be used to intimidate unfaithful governors, and they formed a majority of the infantry by the 15th century.[18] So though imperial Mali was initially a horon-run army, its reliance on jonow as administrators (farimba) and officers (dknsi) gradually transformed the character of its military.

The head of the Kond clan ruled the Sankarani River region near the imperial capital of Niani.[18] The title of Sankar-Zouma, also known as Sankaran-Zouma, is derived from the region and is unique among the farari. The Sankar-Zouma held command over all forces in the south bordering the coastal jungle. His role would have been similar to the Farima-Soura in protecting merchants moving in and out of the empire with valuable goods. He had many goods which he would consistently give out to others.

Tiramakhan, also known as Tiramaghan, of the Traore clan, was ordered by Sonjata to bring an army west after the king of Jolof had allowed horses to be stolen from Mandekalu merchants. The king of Jolof also sent a message to the young emperor referring to him as an upstart.[39] By the time Tiramakhan's forces were done three kings were dead, and the Jolof ruler was reduced to a vassal.[40] The new western portion of the empire settlement would become an outpost that encompassed not only northern Guinea-Bissau but the Gambia and the Casamance region of Senegal (named for the Mandinka province of Casa or Cassa ruled by the Casa-Mansa).[41] It was in this way that the sub-kingdom of Kaabu was established. The Traore clan left a large imprint on Guinea-Bissau and future settlements along the Gambia which trace their noble bloodlines back to him or other Mandekalu warriors.[42]

Mansa Djata died in around 1255,[43] and he was succeeded by his son who ruled until 1270.[44] Mansa Ouali I (also known as Ali, Uli or Wali) proved to be able and energetic leader according to Ibn Khaldun. During his reign, the Mandinka conquered or absorbed Bundu near the Senegal River.[43] The empire also conquered the city of Gao, epicenter of the burgeoning Songhai state, and brought Timbuktu and Jenne into its ambit if not its actual control.[45]

The territorial gains of the Mali Empire were maintained well after Sakura's death. Mansas Gao, Mohammed ibn Gao and Abubakari II reigned in peace and prosperity over a well-guarded realm dotted with garrisons in Walata, Timbuktu, Gao, Koumbi-Saleh and many others.[52] In 1312, Mansa Musa I came to power and brought the empire even more fame and prestige with his legendary Hajj to Mecca. His generals added Walata and the Teghazza salt mines to the empire's already impressive size.[51] In 1325, the Mandinka general Sagmandir put down yet another rebellion by the Songhai in Gao.[51] The Mali Empire was at its largest and wealthiest under Musa I, spanning over 1.29 million square kilometers.[53]

The Mali Empire has enjoyed virtually no military reverses in its first century of existence and had grown at a terrific rate in both size and wealth by the time Ibn Battuta arrived there. However this wealth and power may have been the reason behind more aggressive attacks by its neighbors as well as the complacency of some of the mansas in dealing with them. Subject peoples on the fringes of the empire slowly began to shake off the yoke of Mandinka hegemony. This happened slowly at first, but after 1450 the empire would begin to crumble very rapidly.

Mansa Musa was succeeded by his son in 1337, which marked the beginning of the empire's slide into decline. Mansa Maghan ruled four years before his death, which was probably hastened by Musa's brother Suleyman. Sometime during these four years, Mossi horsemen from the Upper Volta raided Timbuktu and surrounding cities. But the most important development of the period was Songhai's assertion of independence for good from Mali in 1340.[54]

Mansa Suleyman died in 1360 and was succeeded by his son, Camba, who was quickly overthrown by a son of Maghan I. Despite turmoil within Manden, the empire maintained its other possessions. The throne officially went to Mansa Musa II in 1374, son of Mansa Mari Djata II. However, Musa II, while a good emperor according to written records, was under the control of his sandaki (literally "high counselor",[56] often translated as vizier).[57] This sandaki, named Mari Djata, had no relation to anyone in the Keita dynasty, but ran the empire as if he was. According to Ibn Khaldun, Sandaki Mari Djata even tossed Musa II in jail keep him out of the way.[58] During this time, Mali's eastern provinces were in open rebellion.[59] Sandaki Mari Djata mobilized the army on a campaign to restore order. He oversaw the re-subjugation of the Tuareg occupying Takedda,[60] an important copper mining center in the north.[61] The vizier was not entirely successful and was unable to stop re-subjugate the Songhai who were well on their way to their own empire by the end of the 14th century.[2] Attempts to re-conquer the Songhai were likely doomed due to the inhabitants being under Mandinka military influence for so long and being ruled by a dynasty that had its very roots in Mali's imperial court.[62] The Mali Empire also laid siege to the town of Tadmekka east of Gao but was unable to take the town or force its inhabitants back into submission.[59] The overall success of the campaign appears mixed, but Mali's ability to retain Takedda shows it was far from total collapse. 17dc91bb1f