Political Propaganda & Strategic Narratives

Group 1: Appeal to Commonality 

Corresponding mostly to the logos principle in a constructive manner, this group encompasses techniques that often exhibit patriotism or self-praise based on fallacious reasoning and/or emotions. Therefore, pathos is also present. The author often appeals to shared experiences, such as national feelings or common values. The tweets containing these techniques usually inform about the justness and relevance of a government’s actions, construct a positive image of the country, and frequently express the courage, heroism and morality of its members. Within this group we include: 

• Ad populum / Ad antiquitatem: appealing to the will of the majority, to the tradition, to the history of a community to support an argument (Weston, 2018: 88; Van Vleet, 2011)  

  • • • • We know what we are doing. The most important factor for Chinese achievement is that we are adaptive to the changing world. That's the legacy of our ancestors. That's Chinese wisdom.  Western people need to seriously learn Chinese history and culture to understand China. 

• Flag Waving. Hobbs & McGee (2008) first referred to this technique as the exhibition of symbol to gain credit and persuade. Da San Martino et al (2019) further elaborate that it consisted in playing on strong national feeling to justify or promote an action or idea. This task adopts a wider concept that includes playing on strong national feelings, worshiping a symbol or hero, hyperbolic praise, and portraying oneself as a savior of your community.    

• #OTD in 1799 Russian forces under Field-Marshal Alexander #Suvorov won one of the most dramatic & iconic battles in history “the Battle of the Bridge”. Victory was achieved against all odds under impossible conditions & impassable terrain, yet... #RussiansDidIt 

Group 2: Discrediting the Opponent

Corresponding mostly to the logos principle in a destructive manner, this group contains techniques that predominantly show hostility towards a third party (such as a political adversary) through fallacious reasoning and/or negative emotions (therefore the pathos is also present). Tweets with these techniques often build the image of a hostile adversary, delegitimize its actions or ideas and undermine alternative perspectives. This group contains:  

• Name Calling / Labelling. Pejoratively labelling the object of the propaganda campaign as something the target audience fears, hates, or finds undesirable (Da San Martino et al, 2019; Miller, 1939).  

  • • • I called the politicization of the China Virus by the Radical Left Democrats a Hoax, not the China Virus itself. Everybody knows this except for the Fake and very Corrupt Media!

• Undiplomatic Assertiveness / Whataboutism. This is a combination of techniques that attempt to discredit an opponent's behavior by depicting it as hostile, cynical or unethical, occasionally deviating the attention from one’s own behavior. It is based on the aggressivity shown by certain diplomats on Twitter (see, for example,  d’Hooghe, 2021), on Johnson-Cartee & Copeland (2004), that anticipate that vilifying the enemy is a likely manifestation of diplomatic propaganda, and on a wider conceptualization of the traditional concept of whataboutism, as employed in Da San Martino et al (2019). Through Undiplomatic Assertiveness / Whataboutism, it is expected to notice systematic hostility against rivals, which may indicate propagandistic endeavors to flood the zone: trying to manipulate audiences’ perceptions through similar, cumulative messages that intend to direct or distract the attention (d’Hooghe, 2021; Starr, 2020).

  • • • Western elites and Mainstream Media are readily shouting the name of #Navalny-the-crook who faces charges of embezzlement, but shyfully forget to mention their political prisoner Julian #Assange.   

• Scapegoating. As Da San Martino et al (2019) puts, transferring the blame to one person or group of people without investigating the complexities of an issue. 

  • • • It is not China but the US that is militarizing and stoking tensions in the South China Sea. The US should stop its provocative military actions that endangered regional peace and stability.  

• • Propaganda Slinging. The labeling of the behavior of others as propagandistic or disinformative without due consideration of the argument (Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, 2004). 

    • • • For years Fake stories and investigations, then the phony Russia, Russia, Russia HOAX, next Ukraine and the failed Impeachment, now the crummy Atlantic Magazine’s MADE UP STORY, and lastly, the political hit job by rapidly fading Bob Woodward and his boring book. It never ends! 

• Appeal to Fear. Seeking to discredit or undermine the reputation of a rival by instilling anxiety and/or panic in the population about hypothetical situations it may provoke. This technique may also aim to dissuade an opponent from doing something, fearing the consequences it will have in the future.  (Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, 2004). 

  • • • • We won't allow any impediment to China's reunification or interference in domestic affairs under the pretext of Taiwan. Those harming our core interests will meet countermeasures & get severe punishment from history if going further astray. 

• Absurdity Appeal. Ridiculing or indicating the absurdity of the opposition’s position (Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, 2004). 

  • • • • Is there anything left that US hasn’t sanctioned yet? Maybe the dolphins that were swimming alongside the tankers? US looks increasingly pathetic and ridiculous by trying in vain to impose their will on other countries 

• Demonization. Invokes civic hatred towards an opponent. It involves strong accusations towards the adversary, presented as an existential threat.  

  • • • • Biden is a corrupt globalist sellout who never missed a chance to stab American workers in the back. If Biden wins, China wins 

• Personal attacks: Attacking the personal background or conditions, (by for example referring to his/her family life, religion, marital history, medical history, etc.), of an individual (Johnson-Cartee & Copeland, 2004) 

  • • • • Example by Jonhson-Cartee & Copeland (2004): He tries to appeal to Christian voters, but his real life is anything but Christian. He is a heavy drinker and a compulsive womanizer.   

• Doubt. Casting doubt on the credibility or honesty of the intentions, actions or capacities of someone (Da San Martino et al, 2019) 

  • • • • Soul-searching questions for Navarro: What's behind the closure of the biolab at Fort Detrick? What's the connection between the closure, vaping lung disease, the flu & #COVID19? When will US invite experts to investigate the origin of the virus in US?

• Reductio ad Hitlerum. Persuading an audience to disapprove an action or idea from an opponent by associating it with a well-known group or a person that is hated by the target audience (e.g. Hitler or the Nazis), for example by saying that that undesirable group held the same behavior (Teninbaum, 2009, in Da San Martino et al, 2019). 

  • • • • Some American politicians often arbitrarily slander China stealing American technology, undermine high-tech academic exchanges, and arrest some scientists involved in scientific and technological cooperation. This is reminiscent of the ugly history of McCarthyism. Sadly 

Group 3: Loaded Language  

This group mostly refers to pathos. Propaganda does not just seek to convince and persuade through what is logical but seeks to move us physically (change our behaviors, encourage us to spread the message, etc) by moving us first emotionally (Miles, 2019). Loaded Language involves hyperbolic language, evocative metaphors and specific words and phrases with strong emotional implications (either positive or negative) to influence an audience.  Our notion of loaded language is wider than the one employed by Da San Martino et al (2019) , as we also include what these authors consider exaggerations 

• #OTD in 1699, ‘Peter The Great ordered #StAndrew’s flag to be used as Russian naval ensign. In 1992, #Russian Navy raised the glorious banner on board its battleships again   

Group 4: Appeal to Authority  

Finally, group 4 is mostly dedicated to ethos. It includes two techniques: 

• Appeal to False Authority. It corresponds to transfer and testimonial in other categorizations, such as Miller (1939). In a tweet containing Appeal to False authority there is a third person or institution that is included to support, endorse, reinforce an idea, message or behavior for which he/she/it should not be considered as a valid reference. 

  • • • • A voice of a Pakistani student's wife tells real situation about the coronavirus in China. Trust the Chinese Government. No panic!  

• Bandwagoning. Attempting to persuade the target audience to join in and take the course of action because someone else is taking the same action. (Da San Martino et al, 2019; Hobbs and Mcgee, 2008). The attempt to incorporate someone into a pre-existing course of action because someone else is doing it differentiates Bandwagoning from appeal to false authority. Bandwagoning also differs from Ad Populum / Ad Antiquitatem.: Ad Populum may involve the reference to a wide collectivity, but to promote one’s (or his/her government) own actions or ideas, not to intend that a third party follows suit. 

  • • • • #Germany took strong action today against Hizballah. The U.S. commends our German ally for banning this #Iran-sponsored terrorist group and ensuring its supporters are denied operating space. We call on #EU member states to follow suit in holding Hizballah accountable.