The Revolution

Significance

The American Revolution not only gave birth to the United States, but also has enormous symbolic significance to peoples across the globe. The republican values of establishing self rule, individual liberties, and democratic systems of governance have inspired political activism, reform, and revolution in many countries. While the ideology of the American Revolution was shaped by English constitutional thought (and English history), Thomas Jefferson's declaration that "all men are created equal" was a radical sentiment during the eighteenth century. Later generations of Americans would invoke this passage of the Declaration of Independence to press for full equality under the law.

The Imperial Conflict

The American Revolution was the culmination of a decade-long imperial debate between whig colonists and Parliament. Lord North--the prime minister often credited for loosing the North American colonies--followed an inflexible punitive policy toward the Americans in the wake of the Boston Tea Party (December 1773). His plan to collectively punish all of Massachusetts for the destruction of East India tea galvanized American opposition to English colonial policy. In direct response to the Coercive Acts, the colonists formed a proto-government they called the Continental Congress. This body would express the colonial objections to the Coercive Acts and it would eventually direct the American war in a second incarnation known as the Second Continental Congress.

A New American Ideology

Up until the 1770s, Americans presented their protest as a defense of traditional English rights and liberties. By 1776, the ideology that guided Americans to action is known as "republicanism." While republicans hold a range of views on appropriate forms of government, they all agree with the following positions. Republicans….

1. reject hereditary rule (no king, no nobility)
2. embrace some form of indirect democracy
3. demand that there be rule by law, not by man (strong faith in the value of written constitutions)

Republicanism motivated a large proportion of those who joined the Revolutionary cause, but not all republicans shared a common vision for the American government and society. Some, like the loyalists of the British crown, feared the potential "tyranny of the mob" or the "tyranny of democracy," while other republicans expressed a strong faith in the ability of the common man to hand the responsibility of governing in a responsible manner. These competing positions would lead to political divisions within the United States soon after the Revolution.

Early Fighting

The British initially chose to concentrate their military operations in the New England colonies. The Boston area was a center of whig protest during the 1760s and 1770s and produced a number of important revolutionary leaders, such as John Hancock (first signer of the Declaration of Independence), Samuel Adams (a leader of the Sons' of Liberty) and John Adams (first vice president of the United States).

Once King George declared his North American colonies to be in Rebellion, Prime Minister Lord North directed General Gage to take any military actions he deemed appropriate. In April of 1775, Gage began his operations in the hinterland of Boston, thus beginning the first fighting of the war in the villages of Lexington and Concord.

The Continental Congress would reconvene in May and would coordinate the response to British aggression by behaving as a central government. Although formal independence would not be declared until the following year (July 1776), Congress would nonetheless

1. establish a postal system
2. begin printing its own currency (the Continental Dollar)
3. establish the Continental Army

George Washington was placed at the head of the Army. His selection to the position was based on Washington's military experience and on political considerations. Most important, by choosing a Virginian to direct military operations, Congress was making it clear that the conflict was not between Britain and Massachusetts, but between Britain and all thirteen mainland colonies.

The British invasion of the Northeast would intensify and expand, with the capture a number of important port towns, including New York and Philadelphia. While occupying cities and towns was a relatively simple task for Britain's professional soldiers, winning the hearts and minds of the colonials was not.

After the capture of New York in 1777, Britain's grand strategy for the Northeast was to control the North-South corridor along the Hudson River. By taking possession of this swath of territory, British generals hoped to isolate the New Englanders from the middle colonies. General Burgoyne was ordered to march his men southward from Canada. Bogged down by heavy supplies, Burgoyne and his men were harassed by American militia men until he was forced into battle at Saratoga. In October of 1777, Burgoyne was trapped and surrendered his entire Army. This victory at Saratoga encouraged the French to enter the war on the American side in February of 1778.

American Revolution--Southern Military Engagements (1779-1781)

The loss at Saratoga forced the British generals to shift their military focus southward with the expectation that southern loyalists would provide a solid foundation for regaining control over North America. The Red Coats succeeded in installing a loyalist government in Georgia and won an important battle at Camden, South Carolina. Unfortunately for loyalists, however, the unexpectedly fierce guerilla fighting overstretched British resources, forcing them to initiate a northward retreat to mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. After a two month siege at Yorktown, General Cornwallis was forced to surrender his army to Washington in October of 1781.

Key the American success at Yorktown was French military assistance. The French not only supplied troops to Washington's land-based forces, but they also effectively used their navy in preventing an evacuation of Cornwallis's men via the sea. While the British would continue to occupy New York City until the Treaty of Paris (1783), all fighting had ceased as a consequence of Yorktown. Washington would remain at the head of the Continental Army, but its size was greatly reduced during the quiet period following Cornwallis's surrender at Yorktown.

American Revolution--The Treaty of Paris

The Treaty of Paris that ended the war had 82 points, but for our purposes it is essential to keep the following in mind. According to the terms of the agreement

Great Britain recognized the United States as a sovereign and independent nation
Great Britain recognized the United States' western boarder as the Mississippi River
Great Britain committed itself to evacuate its troops from the United States and its territories west of the Appalachian Mountains
The United States would help enforce private debts owed by its citizens to British merchants and creditors

Key Terms

The Declaration of Independence • Republicanism • Continental Congress • Monetary policy • Continental Army • Military engagements ( Lexington and Concord, Bunker Hill, New York, Trenton, Saratoga, Yorktown) • Hudson Highland Strategy • Involvement of the French• Lord North• Continental Dollar • Continental Army vs Militia

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