文化と少子高齢化

An ecological study about cultural influences low birth rate and longevity

Background and objectives

Japan has a large proportion of older adult citizens (aged 65 years and over) and a low birth rate. This issue is not unique to Japan, as other developed countries are facing population aging. What is the reason for population aging?

Longevity may be affected by economic development. For example, life expectancy is positively associated with wealth (i.e., gross domestic product; GDP) (World Bank, 2015). In other words, citizens' nutrition status will be kept the good conditions because the medical and welfare support is fullful in the wealth countries. Other factors (e.g., geographical, genetic, and cultural differences) could also affect health status. Markus and Kitayama (1991) suggested that culture may affect cognition, behavior, and motivation. Therefore, culture is expected to relate to not only longevity but also low birth rate.

Hence, we investigated whether national cultural values were predictive of low birth rate and longevity. We introduce the results on this website.

Hofstede's national cultural values

Hofstede's national cultural values is used as cultural indicator in this study. This model of cultural values explained national cultural values consists of four dimensions. Hofstede examined more than 50 countries and regions during 1973 and 1976, using a questionnaire covering international comparisons of work-related values. He identified following four cultural dimensions;

Power distance: The extent to which less powerful members of organizations and institutions accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.
Uncertainty avoidance: The extent to which a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations.
Individualism/Collectivism: The degree to which individuals are supposed to look after themselves or remain integrated into groups.
Masculinity/Femininity: The degree of different of roles between gender. Masculinity refers to the distribution of emotional roles between the genders; for example, gender roles are distinct in highly masculine cultures.

Hofstede's national cultural values and low birth rate and longevity: An ecological study

Our study investigated the association between cultural values, as measured by Hofstede’s model, and societal aging indicators (e.g., longevity and birth rate).

Longevity and birth rate data for 59 countries and regions from the 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s were used. Multiple regression analyses were conducted, adjusted for gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, higher educational attainment rate gender gap, and labor force participation rate gender gap.

Uncertainty avoidance was positively associated with the percentage of older adults in all three decades, and with the total fertility rate in the 1990s. Uncertainty avoidance interacted with GDP per capita in the percentage of female older adults in the 1990s and 2000s, male and female life expectancy in the 1990s, and the total fertility rate in the 1990s. The positive association between uncertainty avoidance and percentage of female older adults was intensified in wealthy countries. In addition, life expectancy increased and the total fertility rate decreased in response to an increase in the uncertainty avoidance score in wealthy countries, whereas the opposite was true in poor countries.

In conclusion, uncertainty avoidance and wealth may be key cultural values for aging societies.

※This study has been published in Journal of Adult Development. You can download the paper as follow:

https://rdcu.be/dhWeC

Hirokawa, K., Kasuga, A., Gondo, Y., Honjo, K., Taras, V. (2023) Hofstede’s Cultural Values and Birth Rate and Longevity: A National-Level Analysis. Journal of Adult Development.

World map of uncertainty avoidance

Figure 1 shows that cultural map of uncertainty avoidance. The score of uncertainty avoidance was staged to eight levels from low to high. Red indicates the highest uncertainty avoidance, and blue indicates the lowest uncertainty avoidance.

Figure 1The map of uncertainty avoidance. Under 30 was identified as the "lowest ", over 90 was identified as the "highest," and between 30 to 89 was divided equally in six stages. Gray area is the regions that lack of data. In Hofstede's original data, the scores of "West African countries," "East African countries," and "Arab countries" were calculated by regions and does not have data each countries. Therefore, in this study, these scores were considered as countries' (included in these regions) scores.

World map of uncertainty avoidance and GDP

Figure 2 shows that cultural map of uncertainty avoidance and GDP. The score of uncertainty avoidance was staged to four levels from low to high, and the score of GDP was divided in low or high. Red identifies the highest uncertainty avoidance and GDP. Yellow identifies the lowest uncertainty avoidance and the highest GDP. Blue identifies the lowest uncertainty avoidance and GDP. Yellow green identifies the highest uncertainty avoidance and lowest GDP.

Figure 2 The map of uncertainty avoidance and GDP. The score of uncertainty avoidance was staged to four levels from low to high, and the score of GDP was divided in low or high. As a result, total eight groups were identified. Gray area is the regions that lack of data. In Hofstede's original data, the scores of "West African countries," "East African countries," and "Arab countries" were calculated by regions and does not have data each countries. Therefore, in this study, these scores were considered as countries' (included in these regions) scores.

Data set used in this study

Cultural values: Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organization Across Nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Percentages of older adults (65+): World Bank. (https://data.worldbank.org/).
Life expectancy: World Health Organization’s “World Health Statistics.” (http://www.who.int/gho/publications/world_health_statistics/en/).
Total fertility rate: United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund “State of the World’s Children” report (https://data.unicef.org/).
GDP: United Nation’s “Human Development Report.” (http://www.hdr.undp.org/en).
Educational attainment rate gender gap: Barro–Lee Educational Attainment Dataset. (http://barrolee.com/).
Labor force participation rate gender gap: International Labour Organization. (https://www.ilo.org/global/lang--en/index.htm).

References

Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implication for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224.

World Bank (2015). Life expectancy at birth. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN (2018.6.19).

Tool

World map was downloaded from 白地図専門店 (http://www.freemap.jp/).