Background:  Crowns for primary molars are preformed and come in a variety of sizes and materials to be placed over decayed or developmentally defective teeth. They can be made completely of stainless steel (know as 'preformed metal crowns' or PMCs), or to give better aesthetics, may be made of stainless steel with a white veneer cover or made wholly of a white ceramic material. In most cases, teeth are trimmed for the crowns to be fitted conventionally using a local anaesthetic. However, in the case of the Hall Technique, PMCs are pushed over the tooth with no local anaesthetic, carious tissue removal or tooth preparation. Crowns are recommended for restoring primary molar teeth that have had a pulp treatment, are very decayed or are badly broken down. However, few dental practitioners use them in clinical practice. This review updates the original review published in 2007.

For over 70 years, the Decayed, Missing and Filled Teeth (DMFT) index has been globally used as the most important index for assessing the status of oral and dental health. Moreover, this index is the most important index used in epidemiological studies of the health status of the community (9). This index determines the number of decayed teeth, the number of treated teeth, and the number of teeth missed due to decay (10). This index is used to evaluate and monitor oral health interventions in the community by developing policies and programs related to this area (11, 12).


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The findings of this study showed that as age increases, the DMFT index becomes more unfavorable. With aging, the number of decayed, missed, and filled teeth normally increases; thus, the WHO sets a higher DMFT index for people of polder ages (30). With increasing the age, the DMFT index was higher (36). In addition, some other studies have reported the relationship between older age and poorer oral health status (20, 21).

Cavities are decayed areas of your teeth that become tiny openings or holes. The three types of cavities are shown here. Smooth surface cavities occur on the smooth sides of your teeth. Root cavities occur on the surface over the roots. Pit and fissure cavities occur on the chewing surface of your teeth. Not cleaning your teeth well, snacking a lot and sipping sugary drinks are the main causes of cavities.

If non-token creatures are brought back to the battlefield with decayed added to them, such as by [[Ghouls' Night Out]] will they be decayed after they are sacrificed and then copied by [[Cleaver Skaab]].

Instinctively I think they should stay decayed, but the text on the latter card reads "Sacrifice another zombie: Create two tokens that are copies of the sacrificed creature." Sacrifice of course means that you move the creature to it's owner's graveyard - at which point it is no longer decayed. As the text refers to the "Sacrificed creature" does it mean the creature as it was before it was sacrificed (ie decayed) or afterwards (ie not decayed). One possible interpretation could be that you first do the sacrifice, then once this is complete, you look at the creature and copy it, but then I think that this would mean that Skaab's ability wouldn't work on tokens, which I understand it does.

Dental caries, otherwise known as tooth decay, is the most common, chronic, noncommunicable, preventable oral disease worldwide13. The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that 95% of the world population has suffered from dental caries14. Dental caries form through a complex interaction over time between acid-producing bacteria and fermentable carbohydrates and many host factors, such as teeth and saliva15. Many studies indicated a positive association between the presence of decayed teeth and salivary cortisol levels, a potential mental stress biomarker16, in primary and mixed dentition12 but not in permanent dentition. In addition, it is inconvenient to detect salivary cortisol in the dental clinical environment.

Periodontal disease is also a common disease in the oral cavity17. Past studies have revealed that there is a positive correlation between mental stress and generalized periodontitis in middle-aged and elderly individuals11,18. However, the association with localized periodontitis in young adults has rarely been explored. Thus, we used the Brief Symptom Rating Scale-5 (BSRS-5), a short questionnaire with five questions, to inspect the associations of mental stress with the number of decayed teeth and localized periodontitis in young military personnel.

Dental caries was assessed by recording the caries index, DMFT (number of decayed, missing and filled teeth), according to the criteria recommended by the WHO28. Impacted teeth and third molars were excluded from this study. The selected subjects in the present study with dental caries had a history of pain or infection. Comprehensive oral treatment was given to all subjects after recording the baseline DMFT scores. The severity of localized periodontitis was classified based on the 2017 world workshop of both the American Academy of Periodontology and the European Federation of Periodontology29. For all participants, the extent of periodontitis was defined as localized (

The main findings of the present study were that the number of decayed teeth was positively correlated with BSRS-5 scores, especially in anxiety, depression and interpersonal sensitivity after adjusting for potential covariates. More than two decayed teeth, but not localized severer periodontitis in the oral cavity, was associated with mental stress in military personnel in Taiwan.

Previous studies have clearly revealed that mental stress might influence the development of carious lesions in children39. In contrast, in adults, there is a lack of sufficient evidence on the association between mental stress and dental caries40. Both the Brazilian41 and Swedish42 population-based studies revealed no correlations of mental stress with decayed teeth in middle-aged individuals. Nevertheless, occupation and race/ethnicity might have different effects on this relationship. For instance, mental stress was associated with greater levels of dental caries in adults with intellectual disabilities43, in soldiers participating in the War44, and in Japanese adults45. The present study further filled the gap for the different findings between children and middle- or old-aged adults in previous studies that in young adults, there was an association of decayed teeth with mental stress.

Our study findings suggest that decayed teeth, rather than localized severer periodontitis in the oral cavity, were a possible risk factor for mental stress in military young adults in Taiwan. These findings contradicted the association of mental stress with generalized periodontitis in middle- or old-aged adults and were consistent with the results for decayed teeth in children in prior studies.

A cline of melanism in the peppered moth between urban Liverpool and rural North Wales has decayed dramatically under strong selection in recent decades (Saccheri et al., 2008 and references therein) as a region of high melanism in North-West England including Liverpool has almost disappeared (see also Majerus, 1998). This example has been explained at least in part by a change in visual predation as the effects of declining air pollution have affected the resting backgrounds of the moths in urban environments. Clines have not only been observed to decay rapidly but can also become established quickly, for example those involving chromosome inversions in colonizing populations of Drosophila subobscura presumably under the influence of local selection (Balany et al., 2006). The present study adds to potential examples of how some organisms are likely to be responding to climate change through direct genetic responses within populations. It will be necessary to understand such examples in detail to be able to assess properly the likely contribution of local adaptation and genetic responses in organisms to future climate change.

To stop further damage and restore function of primary molar teeth that are decayed or malformed, a dentist will usually use a filling (a soft material that is placed in the cavity and hardened) to restore the tooth to its original shape. Alternatively the dentist may place a crown over the tooth to cover it. This usually requires an injection in the gum to numb the tooth before trimming it down (conventional technique). These crowns are pre-made (i.e. preformed) in a variety of sizes and can be metal or white, with the correct size being chosen to fit the trimmed down tooth. The Hall Technique is an alternative method for fitting metal crowns, where there is no need for an injection or tooth trimming as the crown is simply pushed over the tooth. Preformed crowns are recommended by specialists in children's dentistry for the management of baby back teeth (molars) when they are affected by moderate to advanced tooth decay, or where the enamel has malformed during development or the tooth has had to have root canal treatment.

According to the Big Bang theory, stable isotopes of the lightest three elements (H, He, and traces of Li) were produced very shortly after the emergence of the universe, in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis. These lightest stable nuclides (including deuterium) survive to today, but any radioactive isotopes of the light elements produced in the Big Bang (such as tritium) have long since decayed. Isotopes of elements heavier than boron were not produced at all in the Big Bang, and these first five elements do not have any long-lived radioisotopes. Thus, all radioactive nuclei are, therefore, relatively young with respect to the birth of the universe, having formed later in various other types of nucleosynthesis in stars (in particular, supernovae), and also during ongoing interactions between stable isotopes and energetic particles. For example, carbon-14, a radioactive nuclide with a half-life of only 5700(30) years,[26] is constantly produced in Earth's upper atmosphere due to interactions between cosmic rays and nitrogen. 006ab0faaa

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