Comedy, Politics, and the Breakdown of Traditional Athenian Values

Multiple oration formats were used to communicate ideas in ancient Athens. The two most popular arose in two scenes: the political scene and the entertainment scene. On the stages of both the democratic assembly and the amphitheater, ideas were exchanged, debated, and commented upon. During the late 5th century BCE, new areas of study and thought gave rise to the breakdown of traditional values. The Clouds by Aristophanes and Plato’s Apology of Socrates by Plato both reference this issue. The two works use distinct argumentative strategies, each applying unique literary techniques to approach different audiences. The opposing nature of these works, when synthesized, provides a thorough perspective on the breakdown of traditional values in Athens during the fifth century BCE. 

The Clouds implements Socrates as a figurehead for sophist thought. To understand the commentary implied by The Clouds, it’s essential to synthesize with it the events preceding its creation. What is today referred to as scientific theory was new to Athens in the fifth century BCE, and was viewed by many as a direct threat to the sanctity and security of traditional Greek religion. The consideration and testing of objective facts allowed individuals to question the strict doctrine of what the gods were capable of and responsible for doing. Such speculation about the physical world was introduced to the Greeks during the sixth century BCE in regions under Lydian and Persian rule (​​Morris, Ian, and Barry B. Powell). These factors gave rise to sophism. Sophists believe in moral relativism, the idea that moral judgments are not inherently true or false; the moral value of an action is relative to the standpoint by which it is viewed. They maintained that we know through our senses, but our senses are untrustworthy. They often found ways to support their ideas with observations from the physical world: “If ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ do not exist but result only from the accidental mixture and meeting of invisible atoms, as Democritus maintained, then maybe ‘good’ and ‘evil’ are relative, conventional categories too” (​​Morris, Ian, and Barry B. Powell). Socrates was not, in fact, a sophist, although he has been thought so by many Greeks. Plato demonstrates in his dialogues that Socrates vigorously opposed moral relativism, dedicating his life to dispelling the skepticism offered by sophists. Socrates believed in a moral basis for the world but asserted that no one can know anything without a clear mind (unlike the sophists, who asserted that nothing could possibly be known because there is no moral basis).

 Socrates’ ideas offended religious Athenian doctrine, which encouraged its citizens to blindly believe in the abilities of the gods. Due to this offense, and the confusing nature of his ideas, Greeks often confused Socrates with the sophists (​​Morris, Ian, and Barry B. Powell). Socrates would not have been widely confused for a sophist if people did not know of his existence. Socrates is a widely recognized figure, which makes him an ideal sophist character in a comedic play. Character recognition allows people to more easily engage with the material presented before them. Socrates is painted as a sophist as soon as his second speaking line in The Clouds: “I am walking upon air and attacking the mysteries of the sun” (“The Clouds.”, lines 225-226). This successfully implies Socrates was a man who spends considerable time contemplating trivial matters that, albeit in a mocking way, give the impression of sophist values. The subject matter of Socrates’ contemplation is perceivably pointless on purpose; if you were to tell a sophist that they cannot walk upon the air, they may argue that one’s ability to walk upon air is relative to gravity’s effects, and if one is suspended in air, as Socrates is here, one may, in fact, be capable of walking upon air. Such ridiculous examples of circular thought are used by Aristophanes on purpose to illustrate sophist thought as pointless and dangerous. Because of the hyperbolized style of the play, and the fact that Socrates was not actually a sophist, I argue the true purpose of The Clouds is not to frame Socrates but to exploit his popular figure for the purpose of commenting on moral relativism’s negative impacts on Athenian democracy. The use of a recognizable figure is essential to Aristophanes effectively communicating sophism's role in the breakdown of traditional values. 

The Clouds uses satire and exaggeration to comment on Athenian society. The Clouds is a comedic play, meaning its audience is the general public. Writing intended for the general public must require no prerequisites; an individual with any degree of academic knowledge (or lack of academic knowledge) should be able to digest the material presented to them. The Clouds is packed with vulgar humor and grand declarations of irony and hyperbole. At Socrates’ Thinkery, as depicted in The Clouds, students are seen once studying whether “...gnats produced their hum by way of their mouth or the rear end”, followed by several comical conclusions involving vulgar humor (“The Clouds.”, lines 157-158). Later, Strepsiades questions the work of a group of students staring at the ground and is told “They are doing research on things that are under the earth” (Cloud 186-189). These comical subjects of study are developed specifically to be satirical through imitation. Everything in the play is exaggerated for the purpose of ethos, to reach the emotional center of the audience. The audience must be entertained for it to listen, and the material must be relatable for the audience to understand. In the case of this work, Aristophanes’ intentions reach beyond condemning Socrates. Socrates is attacked because of what he stands for in the play, not on the basis of his personal actions. Little to none of Socrates’ actions in The Clouds reflect his actual life practices, and most to all of his actions are fictitious. Socrates, the character, is the butt of the joke because moral relativism, the idea system, is the danger presented to traditional Athenian society. Therefore, the true purpose of The Clouds is to demonstrate the possible consequences of moral relativism, which is associated with the breakdown of traditional values. Idolism and hyperbole work together in The Clouds to communicate sophist thought’s real ability to infiltrate and bring down well-established political systems. 

Plato’s Apology of Socrates illustrates the real negative consequences of moral relativism. This work is intended to be digested as factual, despite possible exaggerations or alterations that may be present. Socrates focuses on establishing his credibility (ethos): “...from me you will hear the whole truth” (“Plato's Apology of Socrates.”, 17b). He then tries to win over using logic (logos). The relationship between Socrates and the breakdown of traditional values is clear: Socrates is on trial trying to defend himself against charges for corrupting the youth, or in a broader sense, charges stating that he is responsible for the breakdown of traditional values. What is not as apparent, but just as important, is the direct effect moral relativism has on Socrates’ fate. In a moment of cruel irony, Socrates must use moral relativism to prove that he does not believe in it. Moral relativism, when applied to political systems, makes it so that an argument is won not on what is right or wrong, but by who can make the best argument. Socrates, in an attempt to save his own life, must attempt to make the best argument relative to the situation and his audience. Perhaps realizing this, Socrates strays from his own defense in an attempt to paint himself in a better light, and possibly impart his views to others. “And now, Athenians,” he says, “I am not going to argue for my own sake, as you may think, but for yours” (“Plato's Apology of Socrates.”, 30d). Socrates, to an extent, defends traditional values, whilst suffering from the consequences of their breakdown.

The role of Socrates is completely different in The Clouds and Plato’s Apology of Socrates, yet both demonstrate his role as a political martyr developed by Athens to resist the breakdown of traditional values. The two works are not intended to be viewed in the same light. The Clouds was not written to be digested as a historical, factual account. Socrates did not deliver his own defense, as recorded in Plato’s Apology of Socrates, for the purpose of entertaining the masses. However, because these two works are intended for such opposing purposes, their interpretations can be integrated to develop a fuller understanding of the breakdown of traditional Athenian values. The Clouds demonstrates how philosophy may be viewed in the public’s eye, whereas Plato’s Apology of Socrates demonstrates how philosophy may be viewed in the political sphere. In both cases, Socrates is used as an example, and in both cases, his fate demonstrates the danger of moral relativism. In both cases, it is argued to an extent that Socrates is somewhat responsible for the breakdown of traditional values. However, some further analysis gives light to moral relativism as the true destroyer of traditional values, and Socrates is a victim of a thought system he opposes but gets mistaken for following.

The Clouds and Plato’s Apology of Socrates provide valuable insight into the rise of moral relativism that can better inform the present-day function of politics, specifically in the United States. Drastic differences in thought and societal function can be noted between traditional Greek society and Greek society following the Golden Age of Athens. The most notable change is a political shift from traditional, religious values to forward-thinking, observation-based assertions. Where public opinion used to be governed solely by religious doctrine, people began to rely on the emerging field of scientific theory. Because science is founded on the observation and interpretation of the natural world, it leaves a lot of room for varying opinions, making it possible for people like the sophists to argue that the world has no moral basis. With no inherent governing basis for thought, one’s ability to win a political case came to depend on their ability to speak well. As asserted in The Greeks, “...if nothing about the external world could be known for sure, and if right and wrong were merely conventions, then the art of persuasion, not facts, was the basis for power in the democratic assembly” (​​Morris, Ian, and Barry B. Powell). This is an example of moral relativism’s effects on politics. These principles have stood the test of time and carried well into present-day politics in the United States. Politicians use persuasion tactics to gain followers, twisting scientific observations to fit their agenda. The breakdown of traditional Athenian values gave rise to the kind of moral relativism that is seen across western societies at present, and the cross-referencing of comedic and political theater from the time in which it arose (such as in The Clouds and Plato’s Apology of Socrates) is essential to understanding western government’s functional origins.