The Feralis-Booster notes are a set of Biology notes that are created by the collaboration of Dr. Ali Sohraby, the original creator of the Feralis notes, and the Booster Prep team. These notes cover everything that can show up on the Biology section of the 2022 DAT.
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Biologists are able to study life at multiple levels of organization,[1] from the molecular biology of a cell to the anatomy and physiology of plants and animals, and evolution of populations.[1][6] Hence, there are multiple subdisciplines within biology, each defined by the nature of their research questions and the tools that they use.[7][8][9] Like other scientists, biologists use the scientific method to make observations, pose questions, generate hypotheses, perform experiments, and form conclusions about the world around them.[1]
The basis for modern genetics began with the work of Gregor Mendel in 1865.[26] This outlined the principles of biological inheritance.[27] However, the significance of his work was not realized until the early 20th century when evolution became a unified theory as the modern synthesis reconciled Darwinian evolution with classical genetics.[28] In the 1940s and early 1950s, a series of experiments by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase pointed to DNA as the component of chromosomes that held the trait-carrying units that had become known as genes. A focus on new kinds of model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics. From the 1950s onwards, biology has been vastly extended in the molecular domain. The genetic code was cracked by Har Gobind Khorana, Robert W. Holley and Marshall Warren Nirenberg after DNA was understood to contain codons. The Human Genome Project was launched in 1990 to map the human genome.[29]
All organisms are made up of chemical elements;[30] oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen account for most (96%) of the mass of all organisms, with calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium constituting essentially all the remainder. Different elements can combine to form compounds such as water, which is fundamental to life.[30] Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. Molecular biology is the branch of biology that seeks to understand the molecular basis of biological activity in and between cells, including molecular synthesis, modification, mechanisms, and interactions.
Prokaryotes (i.e., archaea and bacteria) can also undergo cell division (or binary fission). Unlike the processes of mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotes, binary fission takes in prokaryotes takes place without the formation of a spindle apparatus on the cell. Before binary fission, DNA in the bacterium is tightly coiled. After it has uncoiled and duplicated, it is pulled to the separate poles of the bacterium as it increases the size to prepare for splitting. Growth of a new cell wall begins to separate the bacterium (triggered by FtsZ polymerization and "Z-ring" formation)[60] The new cell wall (septum) fully develops, resulting in the complete split of the bacterium. The new daughter cells have tightly coiled DNA rods, ribosomes, and plasmids.
A gene is a unit of heredity that corresponds to a region of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that carries genetic information that controls form or function of an organism. DNA is composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix.[66] It is found as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes. The set of chromosomes in a cell is collectively known as its genome. In eukaryotes, DNA is mainly in the cell nucleus.[67] In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within the nucleoid.[68] The genetic information is held within genes, and the complete assemblage in an organism is called its genotype.[69]DNA replication is a semiconservative process whereby each strand serves as a template for a new strand of DNA.[66] Mutations are heritable changes in DNA.[66] They can arise spontaneously as a result of replication errors that were not corrected by proofreading or can be induced by an environmental mutagen such as a chemical (e.g., nitrous acid, benzopyrene) or radiation (e.g., x-ray, gamma ray, ultraviolet radiation, particles emitted by unstable isotopes).[66] Mutations can lead to phenotypic effects such as loss-of-function, gain-of-function, and conditional mutations.[66]Some mutations are beneficial, as they are a source of genetic variation for evolution.[66] Others are harmful if they were to result in a loss of function of genes needed for survival.[66] Mutagens such as carcinogens are typically avoided as a matter of public health policy goals.[66]
Gene expression is the molecular process by which a genotype encoded in DNA gives rise to an observable phenotype in the proteins of an organism's body. This process is summarized by the central dogma of molecular biology, which was formulated by Francis Crick in 1958.[70][71][72] According to the Central Dogma, genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein. There are two gene expression processes: transcription (DNA to RNA) and translation (RNA to protein).[73]
Evolution is a central organizing concept in biology. It is the change in heritable characteristics of populations over successive generations.[82][83] In artificial selection, animals were selectively bred for specific traits.[84] Given that traits are inherited, populations contain a varied mix of traits, and reproduction is able to increase any population, Darwin argued that in the natural world, it was nature that played the role of humans in selecting for specific traits.[84] Darwin inferred that individuals who possessed heritable traits better adapted to their environments are more likely to survive and produce more offspring than other individuals.[84] He further inferred that this would lead to the accumulation of favorable traits over successive generations, thereby increasing the match between the organisms and their environment.[85][86][87][84][88]
Conservation biology is the study of the conservation of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions.[160][161][162] It is concerned with factors that influence the maintenance, loss, and restoration of biodiversity and the science of sustaining evolutionary processes that engender genetic, population, species, and ecosystem diversity.[163][164][165][166] The concern stems from estimates suggesting that up to 50% of all species on the planet will disappear within the next 50 years,[167] which has contributed to poverty, starvation, and will reset the course of evolution on this planet.[168][169] Biodiversity affects the functioning of ecosystems, which provide a variety of services upon which people depend. Conservation biologists research and educate on the trends of biodiversity loss, species extinctions, and the negative effect these are having on our capabilities to sustain the well-being of human society. Organizations and citizens are responding to the current biodiversity crisis through conservation action plans that direct research, monitoring, and education programs that engage concerns at local through global scales.[170][163][164][165]
To begin the process of declaring a major in biology, please complete the BioNeuroMajorWorksheet (see "Important Notes" below for instructions). This worksheet is a FileMaker application that uses your UNET ID and password. Once that is submitted, you will receive instructions on how to set up an appointment with the Undergraduate Advising Head or Academic Administrator to declare your major formally.
This huge Biology Notes Bundle will be a great addition to your Biology curriculum! Scribble Notes are a great way to help your students with note-taking. Your students can color, doodle, and be creative whilst taking notes.
Also for people who work on computers and get distracted easily by checking emails/facebook too often, a good way out of it is to completely disconnect from the net and remove the icons from the computer. This avoids the big temptation of chatting or facebook loitering that is a COMPLETE waste of time. Completely switch your computer off and keep it away from you if you can in any way avoid working on the computer
IB Biology is challenging, college-level biology, so sometimes you will need a little more study help than your class notes provide. In this article, I've compiled the best FREE online IB Biology study guides (including IB Biology Notes and IB Biology Revision) into one resource and provided you with some IB Biology practice questions.
Below are all the best notes for IB Biology SL and HL. IB Biology SL consists of a minimum of 150 prescribed hours, and IB Biology HL consists of a minimum of 240 prescribed hours. Both levels cover topics 1-6, and HL additionally consists of topics 7-11. For both levels, you'll also cover one of the four options (A through D), at either the SL or HL level. e24fc04721
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