This study argues that British Colonial systems of ethnic classification and governance in Burma established racial categories that were later institutionalised in post-colonial Myanmar's citizenship framework (1982 Citizenship Law). These inherited classifications shaped legal and socio-political notions of belonging in ways that contributed to the systematic exclusion of the Rohingya from citizenship.
This study uses a qualitative historical analysis of British colonial Burma and postcolonial Myanmar. It draws on secondary sources, including colonial census data, administrative records, and scholarly literature on ethnic classification. Mahmood Mamdani’s Citizen and Subject is used as a theoretical lens to understand how colonial racial categorisation shaped postcolonial citizenship. A historical-interpretive approach is applied, using thematic analysis to examine patterns in classification and language, focusing on continuities between colonial governance and Myanmar’s 1982 Citizenship Law.
Future research could compare British colonial classification systems across different colonies to assess whether similar patterns of ethnic categorisation shaped citizenship outcomes elsewhere.
Context Timeline:
Arakan (Rakhine) as an independent kingdom (Mrauk-U period)
1400s–1700s: Arakan (Mrauk-U Kingdom) exists as an independent and multi-ethnic coastal kingdom
Muslim communities are present through trade, migration, and administrative roles alongside Buddhist Rakhine populations
Burmese conquest of Arakan
1784: Konbaung dynasty of Burma conquers Arakan under King Bodawpaya
Large-scale displacement of Arakanese Buddhists and Muslims into Bengal and surrounding regions
Arakan is absorbed into the Burmese kingdom
British colonial period
1824–1826: First Anglo-Burmese War leads to British takeover of Arakan and later all of Burma
Burma becomes part of British India until 1937
Large-scale migration of Indian laborers into Burma, including Arakan, for:
Rice cultivation
Port labor
Trade and commercial agriculture
Development of mixed economies and informal rice trade networks involving migrant labor populations
1937: Burma is separated from British India and becomes a distinct British colony (“British Burma”)
World War II and Japanese invasion
1942: Japanese invade Burma during World War II
In Arakan:
Many Buddhist groups align with Japanese forces
Many Muslim communities and Indian migrants align with British forces
1942: Large-scale communal violence in Arakan
Mass killings and displacement of both Muslims and Buddhists
Deep ethnic polarization between communities
Armed local militias form under both Japanese and British influence
Late colonial transition and independence movement
1945: Japanese defeat; British return to Burma
Aung San emerges as key independence leader
1947: Aung San signs independence agreements but is assassinated in July 1947
1948: Burma gains independence from Britain as the Union of Burma
Early independence period and Arakan conflicts
Muslim political movements emerge in northern Arakan
Mujahid insurgency begins and continues into early 1960s
Early post-independence period:
Muslims in Arakan are generally recognized as citizens
Participation in political and civic life exists alongside growing tensions
Military rule begins
1962: Military coup led by Ne Win establishes long-term military government
Centralization of power and rise of Burman nationalist ideology
Increasing marginalization of minority groups, including Muslims in Arakan
Citizenship tightening and displacement
1974: New constitution strengthens centralized military control
1977–1978: Military operations in northern Arakan lead to large refugee flows into Bangladesh
1982: Citizenship Law passed, 1984 implemented
Defines citizenship based on officially recognized “national races”
Rohingya are excluded from recognized ethnic categories
Many Rohingya become stateless
1990s developments
1991–1992: Military operations in Arakan lead to another major refugee exodus to Bangladesh
Emergence of Rohingya armed and political groups, including the Rohingya Solidarity Organization
Continued restrictions on movement, marriage, education, and livelihoods for Rohingya population
2000s and escalation toward crisis
2012: Major communal violence between Rakhine Buddhists and Rohingya Muslims
Large-scale displacement and segregation of communities
2016–2017:
Attacks by Rohingya insurgent group ARSA
Massive military crackdown by Myanmar forces
Hundreds of thousands flee to Bangladesh
International reports describe ethnic cleansing conditions
2020s developments
Rohingya remain largely stateless and concentrated in refugee camps in Bangladesh (especially Cox’s Bazar)
Continued restrictions inside Myanmar
2021 military coup in Myanmar worsens national instability
Armed conflict continues in Rakhine State involving multiple groups, further complicating return prospects for displaced populations
Reference List: HERE