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Chronologically organized, Child Development From Infancy to Adolescence, Second Edition presents topics within the field of child development through unique and highly engaging Active Learning opportunities. The Active Learning features integrated within the print text and digital program foster a dynamic and personal learning process for students. Within each chapter, authors Laura E. Levine and Joyce Munsch introduce students to a wide range of real-world applications of psychological research to child development. The in-text pedagogical features and the accompanying digital components help students discover the excitement of studying child development and equip them with skills they can use long after completing the course.
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This article provides an overview of P300 research from infancy through adolescence. First, a brief historical overview is provided highlighting seminal studies that began exploration of the P300 component in developmental groups. Overall, these studies suggest that the P300 can be detected in children and appears to reflect similar cognitive processes to those in adults; however, it is significantly delayed in its latency to peak. Second, two striking findings from developmental research are the lack of a clear P300 component in infancy and differential electrophysiological responses to novel, unexpected stimuli in children, adolescents, and adults. Third, contemporary questions are described, which include P300-like components in infancy, alteration of P300 in atypically developing groups, relations between P300 and behavior, individual differences of P300, and neural substrates of P300 across development. Finally, we conclude with comments regarding the power of a developmental perspective and suggestions for important issues that should be addressed in the next 50 years of P300 research.
Growth failure and micronutrient inadequacy during childhood and adolescence can delay growth and create high risk of chronic diseases in adulthood. Puberty is accompanied by a growth spurt that increases the requirements for both macronutrients and micronutrients. These higher requirements are balanced by a more efficient use of protein for development rather than energy. For females, pubertal timing is affected by childhood body mass index (BMI) and percentage of body fat; data for males are inconclusive.
Undernourished adolescents have commonly experienced stunted growth in childhood. Undernutrition in early life can result in fewer pancreatic cells that produce insulin. Although this deficit is compensated for in adolescence, with stunted adolescents having more peripheral insulin receptors, this compensation contributes to increased accumulation of fat (Rytter and others 2014). Stunted children, adolescents, and adults have higher rates of later arterial hypertension. Undernutrition in childhood and adolescence also results in constant physiologic and psychologic stress, increasing the production of stress hormones that weaken the body and decreasing the production of thyroid hormones and insulin-like growth factor that regulate growth.
Marshall, Burrows, and Collins (2014) have suggested that dietary intake is generally inadequate for children and adolescents in LMICs (table 11.1), and adolescents do not fulfill their daily nutritional requirements. Furthermore, disparity is high among adolescents from lower socioeconomic profiles as compared with their wealthier counterparts.
Although the majority of the evidence is from HICs, similar patterns have been reported in upper-middle-income countries. Girls are exposed to risk factors beginning in early adolescence. Peer pressure to be thin, thinness as the ideal body image, and dissatisfaction with current body type can increase the chances that adolescents will develop eating disorders (Crow and others 2014). Adolescent girls who binge eat have high functional impairment and comorbid mental health problems. This behavior, along with weight concerns and other behaviors to control weight, were found to be associated with higher BMI two years later in teen girls in the United States (Rohde, Stice, and Marti 2015). Perhaps partly as a result of peer pressure in early adolescence, eating disorders develop most commonly in middle and late adolescence (Portela and others 2012).
Growth and development includes not only the physical changes that occur from infancy to adolescence, but also some of the changes in emotions, personality, behavior, thinking and speech that children develop as they begin to understand and interact with the world around them. Skills such as taking a first step or smiling for the first time are called developmental milestones.
In the context of childhood development, growth is defined as an irreversible constant increase in size, and development is defined as growth in psychomotor capacity. Both processes are highly dependent on genetic, nutritional, and environmental factors. Evaluation of growth and development is a crucial element in the physical examination of a patient. A piece of good working knowledge and the skills to evaluate growth and development are necessary for any patient's diagnostic workup. The early recognition of growth or developmental failure helps for effective intervention in managing a patient's problem.
The growth velocity is different at different stages of life. Also, different tissues grow at different rates at the same stage of life. The lymphoid tissues can exceed adult size at six years of age. Girls are taller than boys at 12 to 14 years, but later they will not grow taller than their boy's counterpart. Growth velocity is maximum during infancy and adolescence. The head circumference reaches closer to adult size by six years of age. The prepubertal height velocity of less than 4 cm per year is of concern. During puberty, the height velocity is 10 to 12 cm per year in boys and 8 to 10 cm per year in girls. The prepubertal weight velocity of less than 1 kg per year is of concern. Weight velocity is highest during puberty, up to 8 kg per year.
Development is a continuous process from neonatal to adulthood. Though the growth ceases after adolescence, adolescence is not the end for development. Each developmental stage has a new set of challenges and opportunities.
Only 20% of the children with developmental delay in the United States receive early intervention before three years. Early intervention is useful in high-risk children to improve their cognitive and academic performance. Less than 50 % of clinicians are only using standardized screening tools in practice. Time constraints, lack of training are essential barriers in using the developmental screening tool. The Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ), the Parents' Evaluation of Developmental Status, and the Child Development Inventory are standard screening tools used in practice. ASQ tool can be used for up to 66 months. The PEDS tool can be used up to eight years of age. Gross and fine motor milestones are assessed at every well-child visit in the first four years. Standardized developmental assessments using ASQ are mandatory at 9, 18, and 24 or 30 months.[18]
The clinician may screen more frequently if there are risk factors like prematurity, lead exposure, or low birth weight. Autism screening needs to be done at 18 and 24 months of age. If the screening tool reveals developmental delay, the child needs referrals to developmental pediatricians. Children up to three years with developmental delay are referred to early intervention programs, and children above three years of age are referred to special education services.
The health care team should understand the developmental stages that their patients go through during early childhood. We should increase the awareness of health care professionals about the importance of standardized growth monitoring and the appropriate use of growth charts. Also, they need adequate training for using standard developmental screening tools.
Every clinician and nurse managing pediatric patients should have appropriate awareness of referral service to early intervention for eligible patients. Interprofessional collaboration between clinicians, mid-level practitioners, and nurses can improve patient outcomes as developmental delays require prompt intervention when caught, and earlier is always better. Children up to three years with developmental delay are referred to early intervention programs, and children above three years of age are referred to special education services.
Parents play a large role in a child's activities, socialization, and development; having multiple parents can add stability to a child's life and therefore encourage healthy development.[6] Another influential factor in children's development is the quality of their care. Child-care programs may be beneficial for childhood development such as learning capabilities and social skills.[7]
The optimal development of children is considered vital to society and it is important to understand the social, cognitive, emotional, and educational development of children. Increased research and interest in this field has resulted in new theories and strategies, especially with regard to practices that promote development within the school systems. Some theories seek to describe a sequence of states that compose child development.
Jean Piaget was a Swiss scholar who began his studies in intellectual development in the 1920s. Interested in the ways animals adapt to their environments, his first scientific article was published when he was 10 years old, and he pursued a Ph.D. in zoology, where he became interested in epistemology.[10] Epistemology branches off from philosophy and deals with the origin of knowledge, which Piaget believed came from Psychology. After travelling to Paris, he began working on the first "standardized intelligence test" at Alfred Binet laboratories, which influenced his career greatly. During this intelligence testing he began developing a profound interest in the way children's intellectualism works. As a result, he developed his own laboratory, where he spent years recording children's intellectual growth and attempting to find out how children develop through various stages of thinking. This led Piaget to develop four important stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2), preoperational stage (age 2 to 7), concrete-operational stage (ages 7 to 12), and formal-operational stage (ages 11 to 12, and thereafter).[10] Piaget concluded that adaption to an environment (behaviour) is managed through schemas and adaption occurs through assimilation and accommodation.[11] 006ab0faaa
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