Phylogenetic tree of all species present in PhyloPat. This is the unrooted NCBI Taxonomy tree of all species available in Ensembl and PhyloPat. The numbers are the order in which the species are shown on the PhyloPat results pages. A phylogram version of this tree is available through the website.

The ML techniques used in this system included supervised learning models, such as classification and regression tree (CART) and random forest [35,36]. Supervised learning was applied to classify the patients in the training set and predict patients with a specific chronic disease or syndrome in the validation set before the prediction model was available on this system [40,41]. In addition, unsupervised learning (hierarchical clustering using the Ward method and Euclidean distance) was embedded in a heat map, providing classified visualization between new input records and the database. An interactive heat map that could be rearranged or zoomed in and out was applied to this system [42-47].


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Decision trees are an important type of ML algorithm for predictive modeling. They are commonly used in data mining with the objective of creating a model that predicts the dependent variable (the target) based on numerous independent variables [34,37].

Hence, CART can provide a visual tree-based diagram for medical practitioners to disseminate health care information to patients. It also helps users to understand the significance of different risk factors for specific diseases. For example, the cut-off controlled attenuation parameter (CAP) score was used to separate patients with MetS and those with other health observations. The CAP score was brought to the attention of users, thereby increasing their awareness of self-health [34].

Random forest, also called random decision forests, is a popular ensemble learning method in ML. Ensemble methods use multiple learning algorithms to improve ML results by combining several decision tree models. This approach allows better predictive performance compared with a single model. Random forest is a parallel ensemble method in which the base learners are generated in parallel. The basic motivation of parallel methods is to exploit independence between the base learners because the error can be reduced dramatically by averaging [58,59]. As random forest provides a bagging technique for feature estimates, it also offers efficient estimates of the test error without incurring the cost of repeated model training associated with cross-validation. Moreover, random forest ranks risk factors in prediction models, which clinicians can use as a reference for diagnosis, and remote users can use to review their risk assessment of related diseases [34,60-62]. For instance, clinicians can refer to significant factors of certain diseases to determine whether those factors exceed the thresholds or not, allowing patients to be more vigilant about their risk of developing such diseases. In addition, sequential ensemble methods such as AdaBoost and XGBoost will be implemented and uploaded to our system in the future.

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first web-based machine learning system based on self-paid health examination subjects that can provide an online self-health evaluation for several common diseases (MetS, CKD, and liver diseases). The version 1.0 web-based system still has several limitations that may be improved in the next update. First, the 1.0 system is not yet ready for embedding into a hospital for real-time assessment. We are currently working on an improved system to accept unstructured data input and multimodal data, which are especially essential for the prediction of eye diseases such as macular degeneration. Second, the 1.0 system did not have a user login or account security function. Retrievable prediction and security will be improved as the system is matured for hospital embedment. Third, the 1.0 system does not have whole dynamic analyses such as an interactive decision tree; whole dynamic analyses will be incorporated in subsequent versions to improve communication between the medical staff and patients. be457b7860

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