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Introduction
Introduction
The majority of Chalcid wasps are parasitoids, although some species belonging to 11 families are phytophagous (Bohmova et al. 2022, Burks et al. 2022, Cruaud et al. 2023).
The majority of Chalcid wasps are parasitoids, although some species belonging to 11 families are phytophagous (Bohmova et al. 2022, Burks et al. 2022, Cruaud et al. 2023).
Parasitoids have a wide host-range, which includes 13 insect orders, arachnoids (mites, pseudoscorpions, spiders and ticks), and even gall-forming nematodes (Austin et al. 1998, Gibson et al. 1999, Cruaud et al. 2023).
Parasitoids have a wide host-range, which includes 13 insect orders, arachnoids (mites, pseudoscorpions, spiders and ticks), and even gall-forming nematodes (Austin et al. 1998, Gibson et al. 1999, Cruaud et al. 2023).
Emergence of endoparasitoid wasps Ixodiphagus hookeri from Haemaphysalis concinna nymph (Buczek et al. 2021).
Parasitoids
Parasitoids
There are numerous categories of "parasitoids", depending on a) the life stage of their host that they attack, b) whether they live and feed inside their host's body, or outside of it, c) their position within the complex trophic webs (e.g. whether they directly parasitize their animal host, or other parasitoid species, thus acting as hyperarasitoids), d) whether they immediately prevent the further development of their host following the parasitism, or not.
There are numerous categories of "parasitoids", depending on a) the life stage of their host that they attack, b) whether they live and feed inside their host's body, or outside of it, c) their position within the complex trophic webs (e.g. whether they directly parasitize their animal host, or other parasitoid species, thus acting as hyperarasitoids), d) whether they immediately prevent the further development of their host following the parasitism, or not.
Egg parasitoids
Larval parasitoids
Pupal parasitoids
Parasitoids attacking hosts during their adult stage
Internal parasitoids (or Endoparasitoids)
External parasitoids (or Ectoparasitoids)
Primary parasitoids (e.g. they parasitize their host directly)
Hyperparasitoids (e.g. parasitoids of other parasitoids)
Tertiary parasitoids (e.g. parasitoids of hyperparasitoids)
Idiobiont parasitoids (which they prevent their parasitized host to develop further)
Koinobiont parasitoids (which allow their parasitized host to develop further)
Trichogramma dendrolimni Matsumura on Sphingidae eggs.
Photograph by: Dr. Victor Fursov, Institute of Zoology of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine
(Origin: Wikimedia Commons)
Muscidifurax raptorellus Girault & Sanders laying an egg in a fly puparium.
Photograph by: Lyle J. Buss, University of Florida.
(Origin: https://entnemdept.ufl.edu)
Phytophagous species
Phytophagous species
Parasitoida (sensu Peters et al. 2017) are in general parasitic, although many lineages have returned to the ancestral phytophagy of Hymenoptera (Böhmová et al. 2022). Species belonging to nine chalcid wasp families have evolved to secondary phytophagy, including seed-eaters, stem-borers, gall-makers, inquilines and entomophytophagous species (Böhmová et al. 2022):
Mutualism (Ficus and fig wasps)
Mutualism (Ficus and fig wasps)
Whilst most plant species are mainly pollinated by bees, other arthropods or mammals, pollination of each Ficus species is carried out by species of family Agaonidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea), and in turn these wasps depend on their host tree since they dwell and feed inside the figs (Galil and Eisikowitch 1968; Cook and Rasplus 2003). This positive association known as a mutualism, is exploited by a series of non-pollinating species (Non-Pollinating Fig Wasps; NPFWs) of various trophic regimes (gallers, inquilines and parasitoids) (Chen et al. 1999; Cook and Rasplus 2003). Each Ficus species can host up to 30 species of fig wasps or more, providing us with micro-community ecological models of great interest (Compton et al. 1994; West et al. 1996; Cook and Rasplus 2003).
Biological control - economic importance
Biological control - economic importance
While the vast majority of parasitic chalcid wasps can be found in natural habitats where they contribute on regulating other insects’ populations, numerous Chalcidoidea are associated with insect pests that negatively affect agriculture and horticulture. Chalcid wasps (and other parasitoid groups), have contributed as an alternative of insecticides, towards a more ecologically sustainable food production.
While they cannot fully replace traditional pest management methods, they can still contribute adjunctively to integrated pest management efforts. Thereby, many of chalcid wasp species have been utilized by plant protection authorities and some have been even introduced far from their natural extent of distribution to be used in pest control management schemes.
On the other hand, parasitoids following their host-insect in its invaded area has been not rare in the last decades. As such, both native and introduced parasitoid species have been one of the main subjects of research regarding the delimitation of insect pests, aiming to ensure adequate and uninterrupted food production. Despite this, chalcid wasps (and other parasitoid groups), and their role in pest management, remain understudied in large.
Literature research has shown that more than 200 species of chalcid wasps occur in Cyprus, of which 64 are non-native, while 17 species have been deliberately introduced as biological control agents. Regarding the latter the vast majority (82%) has been introduced against various pests that severely affect Citrus production, i.e. scale insects such as Chrysomphalus aonidum and Lepidosaphes beckii, and the citrus leaf miner Phyllocnistis citrella. Other chalcid wasp species, have been introduced against the serious olive pest Saissetia oleae, and the potato crop pest Phthorimaea operculella. Apart from these species, parasitoid complexes that attack other major crop pests in Cyprus are pretty much unknown.
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