Following the post-modern dance and Butoh of the 1960s and then the Tanztheater and nouvelle danse around 1980, contemporary dance (“CD”) first appeared as a new art form in French-speaking countries, Germany, the U.K., and Japan in the middle of 1980s. In the 1990s, it spread to Israel and South Korea, and from the 2000s onward further to other countries around the world. Drawing from modern dance, ballet, Butoh, and other traditional dance forms, individual CD dancers developed unique body techniques. The genre advanced by fusing variously with other art forms such as fine art, music, imagery, and stage.

As with stage arts in general, CD’s successes depend on support mainly from the government but also from other organizations. In the background of that support is ultimately the vast dynamism of a “world-system” in the sense of E. Wallerstein or D. Frank.

The aim of this research is to clarify as much as possible the comprehensive dynamic structure of CD all the way from individual dancers to the global world system. For that purpose, the following research and activities were conducted: 1. A survey of actual CD performances in the capital region (Tokyo and the seven surrounding prefectures); 2. Interviews of dance-related persons in Japan and overseas; 3. International meetings with overseas dance researchers; 4. A survey of the cultural support systems in Japan and abroad; and 5. The position of CD compared to the fine arts and cultural activities other than dance, and a theoretical consideration of the concept of “art” and related systems.

The author of this report assumes the readers will primarily be overseas researchers with an interest in the Japanese dance scene, and persons related to dance. This is the reason why this article limits its scope mainly in describing survey results related to CD performances and its support system in Japan.

I. CD Activities in Capital Region

In the first half of the 1980s, while much attention was paid to the Butoh of Tatsumi Hijikata, Kazuo Ohno and others, artists such as Saburo Teshigawara, Kuniko Kisanuki, Mika Kurosawa, Sakiko Oshima and her H. Art Chaos Company, Dumb Type, and the Sankai Juku Company—all of whom were later viewed as representative CD performers----began their activities. From the second half of the 1980s until the early 1990s, the Japanese dance scene was dominated by foreign artists, Pina Bausch among them. Of the total number of public dance performances from 1986 to 1992, those of foreign companies accounted for over 50 percent. In 1989, that figure even reached 69.2 percent (Chart 10, and Graph 11). Only after 1997 did performances by foreign companies fall below 20 percent of the total CD performances. In the 2000s, they accounted for between 10 and 20 percent (Chart 11, and Graph 12).

　In the first half of the 1990s, Kota Yamazaki, Kim Itoh, Strange Kinoko Dance Company (Chie Ito), Akiko Kitamura, Nest, Shigehiro Ide, and others appeared on the dance scene, and CD accounted for around 15 percent of all dance performances in the capital region (Chart 3, and Graph 3). Around 1996, when the term “contemporary dance” came to be widely used, the Condors Company (Ryohei Kondo), Naoka Uemura, Aki Nagatani, Tsuyoshi Shirai, the Nibroll Company (Mikuni Yanaihara), and other artists appeared on the scene. Appearing on the dance scene in the 2000s were artists such as Ikuyo Kuroda, Maki Morishita, Yukiko Amano, Myeong-Heui Yun, and Ayako Hamaguchi, all related to dancers actively performing during the 1980s and early 1990s, such as Kim Itoh, Setsuko Yamada, Kuniko Kisanuki, and others, returnees from abroad such as Jo Kanamori, and, switching from hip-hop, KENTARO!!. In 2005-06, more than 100 domestic dance companies gave public performances. The total number of CD companies in the Tokyo area reached 426 (Chart 8, and Graph 9).

In 1998, the number of CD performances in the capital region surpassed the number of modern dance performances in the sense of German expressionistic dance, Japanese modern dance since Baku Ishii, and American modern dance in the tradition of Martha Graham and others. In 1999, CD performances surpassed the number of Japanese traditional dance performances, and in 2005 they briefly surpassed the number of classic ballet performances and became the top dance style by genre (Chart 1, and Graph 1). Of all dance performances in 2005, CD performances accounted for over 25 percent; they approached 30 percent in 2008 (Chart 3, Graph 3).

The number of theaters capable of handling CD performances, steadily around 30 throughout the 1990s, surpassed 50 in the early 2000s, and in 2005 reached 80 (Chart 7, and Graph 9). From the 1990s onward, new theaters with state-of–the-art facilities more suitable and economical for CD performances, and those with capabilities to plan dance performances, were built to handle audiences of about 300 persons. *1

Overseas dance companies staged most of the dance festivals held in the second half of the 1980s. From the mid-1990s, however, Japanese companies held most of the principal performances of dance festivals in small theaters hosting audiences of about 100 persons. Some of these were Die Pratze (“I want to watch a dance performance”), Dance Seed, and “Odori ni Iku Ze” (“I want to go dancing”) by JCDN(Japan Contemporary Dance Network). From around 2000, a number of new CD contests and awards appeared, including the Yokohama Solo & Duo (today’s Yokohama Dance Collection Es), the Tokyo Competition (2004-05), the Toyota Choreography Award (2001-present), the Japan Dance Forum Award, and the Asahi Stage Arts Award (2001-08).

Concerning the audiences of CD in its strictest sense (number of persons that directors anticipated would attend), in 1989 the total number exceeded 200,000 persons. That number reached over 340,000 in 2005, 25% of the total sum of 1.4 million persons for all kinds of dance including classic ballet, modern ballet, modern dance, Japanese traditional dance, Flamenco, Fladance, and so on in the Tokyo area with a population of 13 million. Note that this number does not include audiences for Kabuki, No, Bunraku, musical and theater performances, and so on (Chart 14 and Graph 16, Chart.16 and Graph18-21). In 1986, the average audience per performance was over 1,600 persons. That number gradually dropped and in 2000 was about 300 persons (Chart 15, and Graph 17).

Based on the foregoing, it can be said that compared to the years around the 1990s when a small number of large-scale foreign companies staged performances that attracted large audiences, the 2000s saw a large number of small Japanese dance companies stage performances that attracted small audiences. Viewing that development, we can say that CD spread in Japan, took hold, and matured.

II. CD Support Structure in Japan

Since few CD companies in Japan have their own theaters, either theaters or other facilities invite CD companies for performances, or companies raise funds on their own, rent theaters, and hold their performances. In either case, without private or public funding it is difficult for CD companies to hold performances. As support systems of CD in Japan, it is also important to recognize the contributions of NPOs, NGOs, and other organizations, educational systems and dance criticism activities.

(1) Central Government. In addition to the Agency for Cultural Affairs, the government agencies involved in cultural policies related to CD include the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. The basic laws affecting government support are: 1. The Social Education Law (1949) that aims to promote social education through administrative measures; 2. the Lifelong Learning Law (1990) that shifted the initiative for studying from the government to the individual; 3. the Law to Promote Specified Nonprofit Activities (the NPO Law; 2000) aimed at diversifying the control and management of support, formerly done mainly through administrative measures; 4. the Omnibus Law of Decentralization (2000) that aims to shift support-related administrative duties as much as possible to local governments; and 5. the Fundamental Law for the Promotion of Culture and the Arts (2001) that clearly outlined support for culture and the arts.

For fiscal 2005, the budget for projects related to the arts in the Agency for Cultural Affairs—included in the “Nation based on the Culture and Arts Project”—was 22.195 billion yen. As a unique measure for promoting the stage arts, the Agency sponsors the Arts Festival (since 1946). Although an organization for modern dance in Japan called the “Gendai-Buyoh-Kyokai” was already established in 1948 for receiving and distributing dance-related subsidies, the number of projects receiving support expanded in 1990 after enactment of the Arts and Culture Promotion Fund, based on the National Theatre Law. In fiscal 2006, the Agency’s budget was 1.566 billion yen, of which dance-related support was 74 million yen; in fiscal 2007 the support increased to 83.4 million yen. Of 19 projects receiving subsidies in fiscal 2006, six were CD related. In 1996, Arts Plan 21 was introduced (budget of 3.2 billion yen). It was renamed the Culture and Arts Creation Plan (the New Century Arts Plan) in 2002 (budget of 19.3 billion yen). Among 149 projects receiving priority support in the New Century Arts Plan, 48 were related to dance in general, three of which were CD projects. Among the 24 projects in the international exchange category, 17 were CD projects.

Other CD-related subsidies came from the Japan Foundation of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (in 2008, the Japan Foundation’s budget was 3.23 billion yen). CD-related projects accounted for 11 out of 143 projects in 2005, three out of 74 in 2006, three out of 53 in 2007, and four out of 58 in 2008. Another source of funds was the Japan Foundation for Regional Art-Activities (budget of 2.7 billion yen) under the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications.

(2) Local Governments. The total culture-related budget for local autonomous bodies in fiscal 2000 was 680 billion yen, of which 300 billion yen was for constructing cultural facilities, 260 billion was for facilities expenses, and 40 billion yen was for culture and arts expenses (business expenses).

From around 1990, cultural policies in local governments were managed and controlled by foundations established as business entities, of which local autonomous bodies support the budgets for management, but the budgets for business expenses must be obtained from the central government or private funds. Foundations and local governments related to CD include the Yokohama Cultural Foundation (1991), the Kanagawa Cultural Foundation (1993), the Saitama Cultural Foundation, the Tokyo Culture and History Foundation, the Aichi Prefecture Cultural Foundation, the Setagaya Ward Cultural Foundation, Niigata City, which supports the Noism as a residence company, Shizuoka Prefecture managing SPAC, and Yamaguchi City and Yamaguchi Prefecture which support the Yamaguchi Information Arts Center and Akiyoshidai International Arts Village.

(3) Corporations. In 1990, the Mecenat (Association for Corporate Support of the Arts) was formed. Total contributions from corporations in fiscal 2007 for projects related to culture and the arts were 23.5 billion yen. Concerning CD-related projects, Asahi Beer and Kirin Beer currently provide subsidies and space to support performances, Toyota Motor Corporation sponsors the Toyota Choreography Award, and the Saison Foundation provides subsidies for performances and overseas trips (expenditures of 76.75 million yen for 43 projects in 2008, of which 13 CD-related projects received 23 million yen).

(4) NPO, NGO. The Japan Contemporary Dance Network (JCDN), Dance Box, Total Health Care for Artists Japan, and Artists and Children (ASIAS) are NPOs and NGOs that conduct unique CD-related activities.

(5) University Education. The teaching of practical skills in dance is available at the undergraduate and post-graduate levels in 52 universities nationwide. These include Tsukuba University, Ochanomizu University and the Arts Department of Nihon University. The education faculties of national universities also have dance education departments. A number of universities have CD artists as instructors, including Kyoto Zokei University of the Arts, Kyoto Seika University, Rikkyo University, and J.F.Oberlin University.

(6) Criticism. Besides the Weekly Onstage Newspaper that appeared in 1970, Dance Magazine, DDD, and other regular publications were founded in the 1990s and 2000s. Articles by dance critics appear in these publications and in the national Yomiuri, Asahi, Sankei and Nikkei newspapers.

III. Comparisons with Other Countries

Let us compare the situation in Japan with selected countries.

In France, although the total budget for cultural affairs, including the central and provincial governments and corporations, was 40.8 billion francs (796.6 billion yen) in 1992, not much different from Japan, subsidies for CD-related projects were about 2.54 billion yen. In 2005, of 600 companies that requested subsidies, 224 companies received support. As of 2006, nineteen Centre National de Dance Contemporaine (CNDC) and nine Centre de Développement Chorégraphique (CDC) have been established. Cultural subsidies in South Korea are provided through two organizations: the Arts Council Korea (business expenses in 2007 were 10.8 billion yen), and the Seoul Foundation for Arts and Culture (expenses for cultural activities were 2.3 billion yen in 2008). Forty-nine national and private universities have dance departments. In Israel, CD-related activities are conducted through subsidies from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Education, centered on the Suzanne Dellal Center in Tel Aviv. In Germany, although the individual federal states provide subsidies, in 2009 the federal government established the Tanzplan Deutschland, an initiative of the German Federal Cultural Foundation aimed at providing a framework for dance in Germany. In addition, CD festivals and art centers (“dance house”) are seen in the U.K., the Canary Islands (Spain), the Netherlands, Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, Hong Kong, Singapore, Australia and other countries.

In the comparison with selected countries, it is seen that Japan provides about the same overall public subsidies as France, and support for CD projects show a rising tendency, but on the operational side Japan is lacking a strategy compared to countries like France and South Korea. There is no move toward building a structural “stock” for dancers and facilities.

At the same time, however, the cultural support policies of each country have differing histories and face different circumstances, making it difficult for simple comparisons. Concerning the relatively small subsidies provided CD in Japan, rather than grieving about it, it is more important to prepare arguments to convince politicians, administrators, and corporations why it might be better to use public funds derived from public taxes to support CD in addition to welfare, education, and the promotion of industry. In doing so, it must be realized that the situation is different by area.

Actually, there are a number of background circumstances that explain the relatively weak cultural policies of the Japanese government.

First, the targets for government subsidies in Japan are extremely varied. Stage arts by themselves include traditional arts such as Noh, Bunraku, Kabuki, Japanese traditional dance, and Rakugo, as well as ballet and modern dance. Tokyo alone has ten ballet companies and seven philharmonic orchestras.

Second, although Japan’s cultural policies date back to the Meiji period, the trauma related to prewar cultural policies caused a sort of allergy to exist in Japan after the Second World War toward cultural policies in which the government plays the leading role. For that reason, it was the people involved who must take the initiative in cultural activities in Japan, and the government should supplement their efforts as necessary. Kazuko Gotoh expressed the ideal government approach to cultural policies as an “encouragement stance.” Actually, the main cultural support comes ultimately from audiences. Most of the stage arts in Japan, such as Kabuki since the Edo Period, stage shows since the Meiji Period, and Kagura performances since the Medieval Period, did not thrive because of support from the ruling class but developed spontaneously from among commoners. In addition, the popularity among Japanese of taking various private class lessons, such as Japanese traditional dance, tea-ceremony, traditional flower arrangement, and so on, contributed to the spread of the stage arts.

Third, other countries prepare budgets for CD for unique reasons and circumstances, such as to pull the nation together or because later benefits are anticipated from the export of performances, of which the necessity is less recognized in Japan.

In consideration of the foregoing, it is possible to say that (not because of, but) despite cultural policies related to CD in Japan being relatively weak compared to policies in other countries, CD is prospering. Compared to a CD budget of just under 2.6 billion yen in France, where 600 dance companies exist, CD-related subsidies in Japan are estimated to be less than 400 million yen, and in the capital region alone there are 426 dance companies. Available subsidies are about 15 percent of those available in France while the number of dance companies is 70 percent of the number in France.

To be sure, CD as a whole has its existence in the global “world-system”, but its basic rule allows total flexibility, and diverse senses of beauty and body techniques have emerged in various countries. It thus also has local colorings. As a result, there can be no such thing as “the choreography”, as Val Bourne once put it. The system that supports CD must be discovered in each country on its own. As long as CD has a global existence, however, CD support should not depend on cultural promotion derived from a government’s social policies but should make its way within the global system as part of a national strategy for cultural politics. It is this viewpoint, which lacks the Japanese government.

The question “How many angels can dance on the head of a pin?” dates from religious arguments in Europe in medieval times. Since an angel has no weight or physical volume, it can dance on the head of a pin, but the number of angels who can dance together on the pin is limited. If so, then exactly how many angels can dance on the head of a pin at the same time? It was the question asked by Christian philosophers at that time. Unfortunately, however, contemporary dancers are not angels. Neither can they use pins for firm footing. Japan has the urgent task of discovering a CD model that fits its national circumstances.