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If you have a burning desire to know the origins of caustic, you're already well on your way to figuring it out. Caustic was formed in Middle English as an adjective describing chemical substances, such as lime and lye, that are capable of destroying or eating away at something. The word is based on the Latin adjective causticus, which itself comes ultimately from the Greek verb kaiein, meaning "to burn." In time, caustic was baked into the English language as an adjective describing people or things (such as wit or remarks) that are bitingly sarcastic. Other kaiein descendants in English include cautery and cauterize, causalgia (a burning pain caused by nerve damage), and encaustic (a kind of paint that is heated after it's applied).

At room temperature, anhydrous sodium hydroxide is a white crystalline, odorless solid that absorbs moisture from the air. It is produced as flakes, pellets, sticks, and cakes. When dissolved in water or neutralized with acid, it liberates substantial heat, which may be sufficient to ignite combustible materials. Sodium hydroxide is caustic and is one of several alkaline compounds referred to as "lye." It is generally used commercially as either the solid or as a 50% aqueous solution and should be stored in a cool, dry, well ventilated location separate from organic and oxidizing materials, acids, and metal powders.

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Extreme throat swelling may require endotracheal intubation or cricothyroidotomy. Gastric lavage is useful in certain circumstances to remove caustic material and prepare for endoscopic examination. Consider gastric lavage with a small nasogastric tube if: (1) a large dose has been ingested; (2) the patient's condition is evaluated within 30 minutes; (3) the patient has oral lesions or persistent esophageal discomfort; and (4) the lavage can be administered within one hour of ingestion. Placement of the gastric tube should be guided by endoscopy because blind gastric-tube placement may further injure the chemically damaged esophagus or stomach.

Endoscopic evaluation is essential in cases of sodium hydroxide ingestion, and surgical consultation is recommended for patients who have suspected perforation. Signs and symptoms do not provide an accurate guide to the extent of injury. All patients suspected of significant caustic ingestion must have early endoscopy to assess injury to the esophagus, stomach and duodenum, and to guide subsequent management. Severe esophageal burns have occurred even in cases where burns of the mouth or oropharynx were not seen. The ingestion of large amounts of sodium hydroxide may also result in shock. Endoscopy may be contraindicated in cases where the patient is unstable, has upper airway compromise, evidence of perforation, or ingestion took place more than 48 hours previously.

The majority (68 %) of cases worldwide involve children as a result of unintentional, accidental ingestion of caustic substances. The remainder of cases reported are adults with psychiatric disturbances, some after suicide attempts, or alcoholics [1, 2].

Due to the substantial morbidity and mortality associated with these injuries, the medical community demanded legislative action. Through persistent efforts, the Federal Caustic Act of 1927 was enacted, requiring appropriate labeling of caustic substances, such as lye. Subsequently, the Poison Prevention Packaging Act of 1970 directed the US Consumer Product Safety Commission to require childproof containers and improved labeling of caustics and other potentially harmful household products. These legislative acts caused dramatic decline in the occurrence of this type of injury in developed countries. However, in developing countries the incidence is still much higher [3].

The extent of injury that results from caustic ingestion is estimated by the depth of the resultant caustic burn. First degree burns tend to involve only the mucosa, with localized redness and edema noted at endoscopy. Second degree burns involve the mucosa and sub- mucosa with blister formation evident, while third degree burns are characterized by a transmural process that affects the entire lining with findings of extensive ulceration and necrosis appearing as gangrene [10, 11].

a: Resected stomach due to perforation (arrow) after caustic material ingestion. Note diffuse thrombosis of gastro-epiploic veins. b Stomach opened longitudinally. Note necrosis of gastric mucosa

Stricture formation typically occurred 2 weeks after caustic ingestion. Management of the 66 patients with a stricture included gastrojejunostomy (n = 24), dilation with endoscope (n = 21), medical treatment (n = 10), esophagectomy (n = 5), jejunostomy (n = 4), esophago-colonic bypass (n = 1), and nasogastric feeding due to old CVA (n = 1). Of the 21 patients dilated endoscopically, 11 patients required subsequent surgery due to perforation (n = 3, one in the esophagus, two in the pyloric area) and failure of dilation (n = 8). Gastrojejunostomy were performed due to gastric outlet obstruction or EC junction stricture. The time of operation was determined by the patient's symptoms and signs. Fifty-one patients received surgery due to perforation (n = 6) and stricture (n = 34), and 11 patients required surgery after endoscopic dilation. Four deaths (in 51 patients who required surgery) were due to multiple organ failure, sepsis, or hematemesis.

Earlier studies have questioned the recommendation of routine endoscopic evaluation of all patients after presumed caustic ingestion [15,16] on the basis that in the absence of symptoms following unintentional ingestion severe injury is unlikely. The tensile strength of healing tissues in the first 3 weeks is low due to an absence of collagen. New collagen formation does not begin until the second week after injury. Thus, it is advocated that endoscopy should be avoided from 5 to 15 days after caustic ingestion [11]. Currently, EGD evaluation within 12 hours and no later than 24 hours after caustic ingestion is considered safe, and may be beneficial up to 96 hours after ingestion [17,18]. EGD is not recommended from 2 to 3 days up to 2 weeks after caustic ingestion as a result of wound softening.

People most susceptible to medical complications are those who inhale caustic fumes in an enclosed area for a long time and those with a pre-existing airway disease, such as asthma, bronchitis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

The paper presents an analysis of a variety of laboratory experiments substantiating the fact that caustic waterflooding can significantly improve waterflood recovery of certain low-gravity viscous crude oils. Success of the process depends on the presence of naturally occurring organic acids. Experiments show that caustic waterflooding can significantly increase oil recovery obtained before water breakthrough.

Caustic injection as a method for improving waterflood oil recovery is not a new idea. U. S. Patent 1,651,311, covering waterflooding with sodium Patent 1,651,311, covering waterflooding with sodium hydroxide, was issued to H. Atkinson in Nov. 1927. There is no record of successful field application of the method described, however. In 1962 Leach et al. showed that caustic injection water could alter wettability and improve oil recovery in laboratory experiments, but the results of a small field trial were somewhat inconclusive. In 1970 Emery et al. showed that caustic injection could cause wettability reversal and improve the waterflood recovery of crude oil from the Singleton field, Nebraska, in laboratory experiments. A field trial of the process proved to be disappointing, however. The experiments described here show that there is an alternative to the wettability reversal mechanism by which caustic injection can significantly improve the recovery of certain crude oils. The mechanism involves the drastic reduction of oil-water interfacial tension by the caustic activation of potentially surface-active organic acids naturally occurring in the crude oil. The reduction of interfacial tension causes emulsification of crude oil in situ that tends to lower injected water mobility, damp the tendency toward viscous fingering, slow water channeling caused by reservoir stratification, and improve volumetric conformance or sweep efficiency. The laboratory caustic floods of viscous, lowgravity crude oils containing sufficient natural organic acids are characterized by improved recovery at water breakthrough and lower producing water-oil ratios (WOR). The mechanism involving lowered interfacial tension, in-situ emulsification, and water mobility reduction is supported by correlation of interfacial tension with recovery efficiency, observation of in-situ emulsification in thin, transparent glass bead packs accompanied by changes in areal sweep efficiency, and evidence that ultimate residual oil saturation or microscopic conformance in reservoir core material is not significantly affected by caustic injection. The process appears to have good economic potential for suitable crude oils. Sodium hydroxide is potential for suitable crude oils. Sodium hydroxide is an inexpensive material and most required concentrations for in-situ emusification range between 0.05 and 0.50 weight percent, about one-fifth the concentration usually specified for wettability reversal. Furthermore, slug injection of about 0.15 PV can sometimes be as effective as continuous injection in laboratory tests.

Caustic soda, also known as sodium hydroxide (NaOH), caustic, and lye, is a strong metallic base. It is used in a wide variety of industries and by consumers for cleaning. Caustic soda is highly corrosive and reactive. In its pure form it is a white solid, however it is sold in the form of flakes, pellets and in a 50% liquid solution with water. It is highly hygroscopic so readily attracts water molecules from the air through absorption and adsorption. If not stored in an air tight container, it will begin to dissolve in the water it attracts. Caustic soda also readily dissolves in ethanol and methanol, though it is less soluble in these than in water. The largest application of caustic soda world-wide is in the paper and pulp industry where it is used to de-ink paper, for bleaching and so on. Other industrial applications include processing of textiles, bleach manufacture, petroleum production and products, aluminum production, chemical processing, water treatment and in detergents. In detergents, caustic is used in soaponification reactions and for anionic surfactants. Caustic soda is a common base in laboratories and used for cleaning in homes. The industrial manufacture of caustic soda involves a chlor-alkali process. Electrolysis is used to separate chlorine and sodium hydorxide. The overall reaction is as follows; ff782bc1db