Lithium

95.15% Lithium with 4 neutrons, 4.85% Lithium with 3 neutrons, 100% Lithium with 3 protons

Bohr model for: 1s²2s¹

Lithium is the smallest alkali metal element.

Alkali metals include all of the elements in the first column of the periodic table (excluding hydrogen). Alkali metals have their outermost electron in an s-orbital. The alkali metals are often referred to as the lithium family because it is the leading element in the block.

Lithium and its compounds have several industrial applications, including heat-resistant glass and ceramics, lithium grease lubricants, flux additives for iron, steel and aluminium production, lithium metal batteries, and lithium-ion batteries (Wikipedia)

Lithium's 3rd electron is easily lost to form a cation

The amount of energy needed to gain or lose an electron is known as ionization energy. Because the lone electron in the 2s orbital is unpaired, it is more readily able to donate that electron to other atoms. While helium has the highest ionization energy (see the mountain-like graph to the right), lithium's ionization energy crater is lower than beryllium or any of the other row 2 elements.

Notice on that ionization energy chart that a similar valley occurs for each alkali metal (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr). The pattern for ionization energy on the periodic table is shown below; typically IE increases as you go to the right and up. If comparing two elements that are either in the same row or the same column, you can reasonably infer which will have the higher IE.

Electron Orbital Diagram for: 1s²2s¹

Alkali metals have low ionization energy

Patterns in the periodic table are more important than memorizing names

The BEAR mnemonic is helpful for remembering ptable trends

The alkali metals are so reactive, they must be stored in mineral oil to prevent oxidation (loss of their electron). When exposed to water, as seen in the video, the results are explosive.

Most of the s-block elements are too reactive to exist in their elemental state and form salts readily

Like other S-block elements, cations of lithium often bind anions to form a "salt" bond.

Lithium salts such as lithium chloride, lithium carbonate, and lithium hydroxide are extracted mostly from lithium brines, often taken from salt lakes. These salt mining operations are currently under scrutiny as the EU is in talks to label these salts as "hazardous to human health". Large lithium mining operations are underway in Serbia, Germany, North Carolina, and the Great Salt Lakes in Utah. If these EU regulations go forward, the production of Lithium will increase in cost and will likely passed on to the end consumer.

Lithium is being used in many modern rechargeable batteries. Lithium-ion batteries are relatively new technology, but they follow the same principles of all other batteries.

Electric batteries all have similar structure. Either end of the battery is an electrode; the cathode and anode electrodes are bridged with an electrolyte fluid that helps electrons flow in a complete circuit. When the battery is discharging, and converting chemical energy into electric energy, the electrons flow to the cathode (+) away from the anode (-). This is known as a galvanic or voltaic cell.

A very basic battery can be made with solutions of various metals in water that are bridged together with a wire and a salt bridge. Walt and Jesse had to make a battery with Zinc, Graphite, Potassium Hydroxide, and a copper wire like the diagram above.

The metals selected for batteries are based on the oxidation potential of each element. Since Lithium wants to give away its electron, it has a very strong ability to force other elements to take those electrons. Early lithium ion batteries used a lithium anode, but these were too explosive and dangerous. The activity series listed above can determine the flow of electrons of various metal cells.

No matter which mnemonic you remember, OXIDATION = loss of electrons; REDUCTION = gain of electrons. If an element has a tendency to be oxidized, like lithium, it tends to reduce other elements and is known as a strong reducing agent

Types of Batteries

Lead Acid Batteries

Car batteries are made of a sulfuric acid electrolyte and lead plates. The cathode is made of elemental lead (Pb), while the anode is PbO2. These batteries don't have large energy densities, but they can supply a strong surge of electricity needed to generate the charge to start a car engine. These batteries can recharge slow, taking many hours to regenerate.

Alkaline Batteries

Alkaline batteries are made of zinc and mangenese dioxide. When these discharge, the zinc acts like the anode while the electrons flow to the magnesium dioxide cathode. The fluid between the plates is alkaline KOH (potassium hydroxide). These batteries can not typically be recharged.

Nickel Hydride Batteries

Unlike alkaline batteries, nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries can be recharged. These batteries still have an alkaline fluid between the electrodes, but the electrodes are capable of converting electrical energy back into chemical potential energy. In this electrolytic cell, the anode (+) and cathode (-) switch polarity when electric energy is used to "charge" the cell.

Lithium Ion Batteries

Lithium-ion batteries use a graphite (carbon) anode with a metal hydroxide cathode. Unlike the other types of consumer batteries, the electrolyte is not potassium hydroxide, but is made of lithium salts. These batteries have much higher energy density and low self-discharge potential, but can be explosive if charged inappropriately.

Electric vehicles use a combination of various batteries, including many different types of lithium-ion batteries

The size and shape of the battery is important for the end-user application of the battery, but the metals used to create the battery have a dramatic impact on performance, safety, life-span, power, and cost. The 6 most common types of Lithium ion batteries include Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO), Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP), Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminium Oxide (NCA), Lithium Manganese Oxide (LMO), Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC) and Lithium Titanate (LTO).

The anode and cathode of the different types of lithium batteries will be made of different metals, though the electrolyte is always lithium. LCO (Lithium Cobalt Oxide) were the most common batteries found in laptops, phones, tablets, consoles and cameras, but LCO are becoming increasingly expensive.

Lithium-ion batteries are so popular that there are shortages of some of the anode/cathode metals, including the cobalt needed in LCO. This is forcing manufacturers to find alternative materials.

The supply of cobalt is depleting. This is making LCO batteries less desirable, with Nickel/Manganese as the frontrunners for new cathode/anode material.

Anode-free batteries are also new technology that offers more energy in a smaller package, using the unique redox properties of the lithium electrolyte to achieve voltage potentials.

Lithium is explosive when exposed to water (or air). LCO batteries are especially unsafe if they are at maximum charge and sustain high heat.

Low charges cause permanent depletion of the battery from the production of lithium oxides and cobalt (II) oxides, but sustained max charges can be damaging too. Most lithium batteries are controlled with a controller microchip that monitors voltage and current to prevent overcharging, but the longest battery life will come from charge cycles ranging from 80% to 50% capacity.

When the layers of a lithium battery are compromised and the lithium electrolyte can flow freely, extreme heat can result. This can make a number of different gases, including CO2, CO, C2H6, C2H4, and H2, which results in a bulging "pillow".

DO NOT PUNCTURE THOSE PILLOWS. Once the lithium electrolyte is exposed to water vapor in the air, things can get explosive. Some phones were banned from airlines because of this tendency to overheat.

Thermal runaway is the phenomena where these lithium-ion batteries catch fire and the heat of combustion causes the other lithium atoms to become exposed to air and continue to burn. This fire hazard is one of the biggest challenges facing EV makers and owners. Tesla batteries have been reported to combust from thermal runaway weeks after being "depleted" of their charge, and the resulting fire is very difficult to douse. The reaction can sustain itself for days. This fire danger translates into higher insurance premiums, extensive property damage, and even death.

While water can slow a lithium fire, it is not very effective at extinguishing the blaze. Type D powder extinguishers may be needed to slow a runaway fire

The health impacts of lithium are substantial, but it also has a popular medical usage

Lithium Carbonate

John Cade injected guinea pigs with the urine of mentally ill patients. One of the control substances, lithium urate, made the pigs more restful. He took lithium himself to prove it was safe for humans. He became the true guinea pig and discovered the theuraputic effects of lithium carbonate.

While lithium carbonate was first used by a Danish physician, Carl Lange, to treat mania, his theories of its mechanisms (based on uric acid) were disproven. The drug was shelved for many years until it was popularized in modern medicine by an Australian psychiatrist, John Cade. In 1948, Cade discovered the effects of lithium as a mood stabilizer for patients suffering from bipolar disorder.

The exact mechanisms by which lithium acts on the brain are currently unknown. It is rapidly absorbed, has a small volume of distribution, and is excreted in the urine unchanged (there is no metabolism of lithium). Some proposed mechanisms are listed below:

Lithium modifies sodium transport in nerve and muscle cells. It alters the metabolism of neurotransmitters, specifically catecholamines and serotonin. It may alter intracellular signaling via second messenger systems by inhibition of inositol monophosphate. This inhibition, in turn, affects neurotransmission through the phosphatidylinositol secondary messenger system. Lithium also decreases protein kinase C activity, which alters genomic expression associated with neurotransmission. Lithium appears to increase cytoprotective proteins and possibly activates neurogenesis and increases gray matter volume.

Lithium carbonate is a very potent drug, capable of decreasing mortality rates for manic depressive patients by a significant rate. Unfortunately, most patients stop Li2CO3 treatment based on the following unpleasant side-effects:

Cardiac: Bradycardia, flattened or inverted T waves, heart block, and sick sinus syndrome.CNS: Confusion, memory problems, new or worsening tremor, hyperreflexia, clonus, slurred speech, ataxia, stupor, delirium, coma, and seizures (rarely). These effects are theoretically due to excess action on the same sites that mediate therapeutic action.[5] Renal: Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus with polyuria and polydipsia. These side effects are due to lithium's action on ion transport.[6]Hematologic: Leukocytosis and aplastic anemiaGastroenterologic: Diarrhea and nauseaEndocrinal: Euthyroid goiter or hypothyroid goiterOther: Acne, rash, and weight gain. Lithium-induced weight gain is more common in women than in men.

Britney Spears revealed she was forced to take lithium by her manager/father against her will. "Lithium is a very, very strong and completely different medication compared to what I was used to," Spears said. "You can go mentally impaired if you take too much, if you stay on it longer than five months. But he put me on that, and I felt drunk."

Reasons for patients lapsing Li2CO3 treatment

Britney's mood disorders were mistreated with lithium carbonate.

The effective range of lithium carbonate blood concentration is a very specific and combats both mania and depression (bipolar disorder is marked by manic and depressive episodes), but can easily reach toxic levels if misused.

Lithium OC (15 points)

Lithium-ion batteries have changed the way we use electricity and have allowed us to carry personal electronic devices, including game consoles, game controllers and even calculators. Use this section to do a deeper dive on to the some of the video games that have impacted you.

(5 points) - Identify your 5 favorite video games. What are they about and why are they your personal favorites? (1 pt for media + description/analysis of each title)

The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past

Nintendo, SNES (1991)

One night, a girl's voice awakens you from your sleep. "I am in the castle dungeon." She telepathically pleads.You jump out of bed not knowing whether the voice was part of a dream or reality.

Zelda has been one of the most influential video games series in history, and it was responsible for starting my own love of video games. While I had a NES and had played many older games (and have since emulated many more), Link to the Past was the first game that I was determined to finish. At 5 years old, these puzzle games imprinted problem solving skills and have made me appreciate that almost every challenge has an a solution.

I have since played and completed almost every single Zelda game, most to 100% completion. LttP > MM > OoT > BotW > OoS/OoA > LA > WW > Minish Cap > Link Between Worlds > PH > TP > Zelda 1 > Spirit Tracks > Zelda 2 > SS

Chrono Trigger

Square, SNES (1995)

All Life Begins With Nu And Ends With Nu.

Chrono Trigger is one of the all time great JRPGs (Japanese Role Playing Game). JRPGs are finely woven experiences that thread story, puzzle solving, and math crunching to complete. I attribute my strong sense of mental math to JRPGs, since I was always performing calculations towards some game-goal ("I need to defeat 15 encounters with 3 monsters that each give me 22 experience to get to the next level").

Chrono Trigger's story was based on the complex concepts of time travel. You travel back and forward through time to save the planet from a parasitic time-traveling world-devourer (Lavos). Changes you make in the timeline affect other parts of the game.

The art was directed by Akira Toriyama, which lead to my appreciation of Dragonball and anime.

Final Fantasy Tactics

Square, Playstation (1997)

Delita PSX: "Don't blame me. Blame yourself, or God."Delita PSP: "Forgive me. 'Tis your birth and faith that wrong you, not I."

My love of JRPGs didn't actually start with Chrono Trigger, but Final Fantasy. While I have completed and exhausted other games in the series (FF4/6/7/8/Mystic Quest), Final Fantasy Tactics is my favorite of the lot. As a turn-based strategy RPG, the dependency on numbers reached a new level, with almost everything in that game being quantized (HP/MP/CT/Level/XP/Height/Faith/Brave) and impacting gameplay.

The "Zodiac Brave" story is one of my favorite in the series. The introductory chapter, "War of Lions" is a game-of-thrones epic about royalty and divine-right, full of double-crossing and backstabbing nobles. It is revealed that these wars were orchestrated by high ranking religious figures exploiting their power to murder anyone at an attempt to become literal gods; this has in many ways impacted my own leery relationship with religion.

Super Smash Bros. Melee

Nintendo, Gamecube (2001)

The year is 20XX. Final Destination, No Items, Fox Only.

I love the competitive aspect of fighting games. While I have a fond spot for Street Fighter II, Marvel Vs Capcom, Killer Instinct and Mortal Kombat, Super Smash Bros. was the series that I invested hundreds (if not thousands) of hours of play. The satisfaction of getting good at Smash and then smacking down the trash-talkers started with Smash 64. The skill curve for Smash is deceptive; if you think you are good at Smash, you probably aren't. The Smash Bros documentary is an example of the amazing potential players can achieve and a stark realization that there is always someone more dedicated and better at almost anything we do.

Smash Melee is considered one of the best in the series, and it is still played at competitive tournaments more than 20 years after its release. I spent years practicing advanced techniques with my friends, getting better at wavedashing, r-cancelling, and shine spikes, but never even coming close to the precision of the pros. The countless nights playing local with friends are some of my fondest memories of gaming. I will support the Smash community for as long as I'm playing games. Smash Ultimate is also my favorite Esports title and our largest Sylmar Esports community. Marth/Peach/Falco Melee main.

Halo 2

Bungie, Xbox (2004)

Master Chief: "This is Spartan 117! Can anyone read me? Over."Lord Hood: "Isolate that signal! Master Chief, mind telling me what you're doing on that ship?"Master Chief: "Sir. Finishing this fight."

Halo 1 was a masterpiece in first person shooters. It wasn't my first FPS, since I had played and completed Doom, Hexen, Goldeneye 64, Perfect Dark and a few others prior. While the gameplay of a fast paced arcade shooter was rewarding, it was Halo's story that made me appreciate the series. Halo's science-fiction world was one that incorporated philosophies on the nature of life, the persistent threats to that fragile nature, and our own uncertainty about grand societies in our own human past. For all we know, the ancient Mayans or Egyptians could have been as advanced as the Forerunners, the sentient pre-cursors to modern man that helped curbed the proliferation of parasitic Flood. I played through Halo 1's Legendary campaign more than a few times. Halo 2 expanded on this universe and incorporated themes of religious persecution, heresy, and the concepts of AI manifestation.

While I did play Halo 1 LAN and on Xlink Kai, online multiplayer for consoles was in its infancy, so most players were not very experienced. I had a modded Xbox, and Halo 2 had a very infamous leak of the French version of the game nearly a month before retail launch. I played that copy through Legendary before the game launched, and even had the opportunity to play against some Halo pros in Xlink Kai lobbies. On opening weekend, I knew all of the maps and the strategies for our first 16 person LAN, so my team dominated.

The launch of the game on Xbox Live has been marked as a huge turning point for online gaming, and my head-start advantage was a huge part of the fun.

World of Warcraft

Blizzard, PC (2004)

South Park: "How do you kill which has no life?"

World of Warcraft has been a huge part of my gaming past, and there is no question that it is the game I have spent the most amount of time playing. I have a difficult time calling it a game, though, since the function of modern MMOs (massively multiplayer online) is more akin to a psychological addictive machine designed to steal as much time and money from their players as possible.

I have played the game since the original launch, and have played nearly every expansion for a good amount of time as well. My main character has achievements that are so rare and prestigious, I can sell my account for thousands of dollars (similar to this one selling for $10,000). I have lead raids of 40+ people, became one of the most accomplished PvPers on my server, and made friendships in this game that have lasted nearly 20 years. While I have exhausted nearly every aspect of the game and played every class competitively, I main a Druid; a shapeshifting caster that supports teammates with healing.

I attribute many of my tech abilities to this title, since it forced me to type quickly and also motivated me to dive deep into automation. In order to cut out the grind of leveling and stay at the top of the ladder, I have used and made many black market bots. Though I have been banned many times, I keep coming back.

Honorable Mentions

Super Mario 64

Smite

Metroid Prime

Pokemon TCG

Mega Man X

Leisure Suit Larry 2

(5 points) - Use an emulator to run one of your/your family member's/Smith's favorite old games. Take picture/video evidence of your play. Try to play at least 10 minutes!

"In computing, an emulator is hardware or software that enables one computer system (called the host) to behave like another computer system (called the guest). An emulator typically enables the host system to run software or use peripheral devices designed for the guest system. Emulation refers to the ability of a computer program in an electronic device to emulate (or imitate) another program or device. Apart from this interpreter for the emulated binary machine's language, some other hardware (such as input or output devices) must be provided in virtual form as well; for example, if writing to a specific memory location should influence what is displayed on the screen, then this would need to be emulated. While emulation could, if taken to the extreme, go down to the atomic level, basing its output on a simulation of the actual circuitry from a virtual power source, this would be a highly unusual solution. Emulators typically stop at a simulation of the documented hardware specifications and digital logic." (Wikipedia)

Video game consoles are computer hardware devices that are able to execute specific code. The coding language and execution of that code is specific to each console. Emulator software has been developed for most consoles that allows us to run software (games) from those older consoles on PCs or even other consoles. This allows older games to still be played and shared by millions of people, even if no new physical versions of the game are still being made. This has allowed thousands of games to be archived, saved through time for newer generations.

Download an emulator for your desired device ON your desired device.

Emulatorgames.net has a comprehensive list of various console emulators that run on Windows, Android, or OSX. These can be downloaded directly to your computer or phone.

Emulators that run on iOS can be downloaded through the App Store or via individual downloads, instructions for some emulators running on iPhone/iPad can be found here.

Emulators of retro consoles have been developed for a majority of modern consoles, including the Switch/PS4/Xbox Series. Unfortunately, you must jailbreak your Switch/Xbox if you want to run emulators on them. The Xbox Series can run emulators, notably Retroarch, through the official dev mode or with other methods.

WARNING
PROCEED AT YOUR OWN RISK

While most emulators themselves are distributed without cost or license, the games they run are a different legal issue. The software for most consoles is trademarked and copyrighted to the original creators of that software. For some companies, like Nintendo, the original owner continues to redistribute these old titles for monetary gain. This means that distribution of their media is considered illegal, and therefore I can't give you any of those ROM (read-only memory) files. Google is your friend.

Smith has been using emulators for 25 years and hasn't been to Nintendo jail for piracy. Yet.

(5 points) Set-up a Texas Instruments calculator emulator and run a TI app/game

Texas Instruments is the industry standard for graphing calculators. These devices can graph functions, solve quadratic equations and matrices, as well as a number of other useful calculator functions. The TI line has not seen many technology improvements in 20 years; Smith still has his TI-84+ SE from high school that he used all through college and even today. Compared to a modern cellphone, the specs of a TI calculator are extremely lacking, but these devices still go for >$100, despite being 1/1000 as capable, strictly because they are the only devices allowed for testing. If you want to use a calculator for the AP exam or the SAT/ACT, you will want to have a TI. Below are some of the most popular TI models, as well as the Amazon links to purchase one for yourself.

Smith's TI-84+ SE isn't produced anymore, so it goes for upwards of $300 new

Because these devices are allowed on tests, everyone should have practice using them, even if they don't personally own one. Follow the steps below to set-up a TI emulator and launch a game

1) Download the ti84se.rom. Like other ROMs, this software is owned by TI and it is illegal for me to distribute. Google + Wayback Machine is your friend!

2) Open your emulator (jsTIfied or WabbitEmu)

3) Load your TI rom into the emulator. It should launch the software for the TI-84+

4) Download a TI app or game at the following site. Unzip the .8xk file to your computer.

5) Load the app onto the calculator using the emulator tools ("Choose File" button on jsTIfied shown below)

6) Open the APPS menu by clicking the button, and select your app. Run the game, and take a screenshot of evidence.

**BONUS: Get the TI emulator to run a console emulator, similar to this guy's tutorial. This would count for both sections!

Smith first got PuzzPack from his Algebra 2 teacher. If you use PuzzPack yourself, make your screenshot within one of the games

jsTIfied > Choose File > Select .8xk file

WabbitEmu > File > Open > Select .8xk file > RAM > Open

5 points extra credit: 5 Star Super Mario 64 Speedrun

Super Mario 64 is one of the most influential games of all time, helping the general public get acclimated with 3D worlds and characters. It has a huge fan base and a following of players that continue to play the game, finding ways to optimize their run and complete the game as quickly as possible. The video here is a 1 hour documentary on the history of Super Mario 64 speedruns.

Complete your own 5 Star Super Mario 64 speedrun on any device, with a recording to verify it is you completing it. There are many devices in Room 65 that can be used to play and record your run, ask Smith for more details.

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