Mythical Motifs and Sacrificial Symbols

In addition to the inscriptions, there are surface decorations of zoomorphic animal motifs on the Houmuwu. Most notable are the taotie (mythical animal-faced creatures) on the borders and handles, as well as the kuilong (one-legged dragons) on the sides, which some scholars have argued are symbols that seem to have a totemic connection to sacrifice.[1] The earliest known observations and documentations of these symbols and motifs are on Shang ritual bronze ware, however it continued to reappear on vessels throughout the Zhou dynasty, showing its widespread usage and importance. [2] Even though the forms of bronze ware started to change in the succeeding dynasties, these imageries continued to develop into an array of variations and persist with widespread usage.[3] Although there is currently little evidence that explains the significance of these mythical motifs on Shang bronze ware, there are a number of speculations surrounding the probable meaning of these designs and its connection to the ritualistic functions of the vessel.

TAOTIE // 饕餮

"A central theme of the taotie motif is 'taotie eating men.'"

- Zhang Fa (2003). [4]

The taotie is a symbol of a mythical animal-masked beast, and is a motif that recurs on the body, legs and handles of the Houmuwu. It appears in two forms. Apart from frontal taotie mask motifs on the external walls of the vessel, there are also taotie motifs in profile on the handles of the Houmuwu. The latter design consists of two tigers facing one another in profile with their mouths holding a human head. [5] According to Pingxing Wang, these creatures have characteristics that derive from one or a combination of the following – an "ox", "tiger" and/or "goat." [6] Both designs are based on symmetry and continuity, for this can be seen in the repetition of the nasal ridge pattern of the taotie protruding along the edges of the vessel and along the feet. Scroll down to the green box below to take a closer look or go HERE or HERE.

Illustration of a taotie mask motif with labels indicating its distinct features.

Ink rubbing of a handle of the Houmuwu that features the taotie tiger motifs in profile

WHAT MIGHT THIS MEAN?

Although the taotie appears on a number of bronze articles during the Shang and Zhou dynasties, there is no written records that identify its significance.[7] However, the material culture itself does provide some insight into its plausible meaning. Archaeologist K. C. Chang states that in the Shang dynasty, mythological beasts or animals functioned symbolically as a means of communication between “the world of man” and “the world of ancestors and the gods.”[8] Chang also argues that the man’s head represents a "wu" – which is a shaman – and that there is a connection between the sacrificial animals that were prepared and cooked in a large ding and the motifs on the Houmuwu, for “animal offerings [were] a concrete means of achieving communication between Heaven and Earth” and that it is these animals that possessed “the power to help the shamans…in their communication task.”[9] If we consider all this, it appears that the Houmuwu showcases an interaction between function, design and symbolism.

Detail of the frontal taotie motif on the upper section of the front panel border of the Houmuwu.

Detail of the bottom part of the border on the side of the Houmuwu.

SPOT THE DIFFERENCE...

The scroll-like horns on the front of the vessel and the pointed horns on the side perhaps shows two variations of ox and goat feature that appear in taotie motifs.

These motifs on the Houmuwu are also found on other relics in the same excavation area of Yinxu, notably a yue-axe (used for beheading victims) excavated from a tomb, and is thought to have belonged to Fu Hao, a consort of Wu Ding.[10] See the page on gender and the role of royal women to learn more.

A handle of the "Houmuwu" that features the "taotie" motifs in profile.

A "yue"-axe head found in the tomb of Fu Hao featuring similar "taotie" motifs in profile.

KUILONG // 夔龍

The other recurring image on the Houmuwu is the kuilong, a decorative motif of a one-legged dragon that represents the "primitive form" of what would later become more complex depictions of the dragon [11]. Stemming from this, scholars like Lang Ye have suggested that the kuilong arguably gave rise to the panchi (hornless dragon) and panhui (poisonous snake) patterns which appeared frequently in the later part of the Zhou dynasty, known as the Eastern Zhou Period.[12] Although the meaning and significance is not known, Chang argues that along with the taotie, the kuilong also assists the shaman in communications between heaven and earth.[13]

LET'S TAKE A CLOSER LOOK...

On the left is a detail of the upper-left edge of the border on the front of the Houmuwu. There is half a taotie mask at the top corner and the kuilong design can be seen just below. If we look carefully, the rectangular coil design of the kuilong – particularly emphasised through the tail – arguably compliments by the scroll-like cloud patterns in the background, creating a continuity within the borders on the vessel.

Did you know...

The "kuilong" design can be found within the frontal "taotie" motif. See if you can spot the one-legged dragon within the animal-mask design.

LET'S LOOK AT ONE MORE DETAIL...

YUNLEIWEN // 雲雷文

The Houmuwu also features the yunleiwen, that is, the whorl or spiral ‘cloud-and-thunder’ pattern. This is a repetitive design that tightly packed into the background of the mythical animal motifs. Like the aforementioned symbols, the meaning of this design is not known, yet a number of scholars hypothesising that its primary purposes may have been to "embellish" or "decorate" the background of bronze vessels during the Shang and Zhou Dynasties.[14] Jason Sun argues that since it is a continuous border that often frames objects, it may symbolise longevity and immortality.[15] This interpretation perhaps link to the function of the vessel and the records in the oracle inscriptions about ancestral communication and the supreme deity – Shang Di.

Click HERE to see the page on rituals and sacrifice to find out more.

WHAT HAVE WE LEARNT?

These markings on the Houmuwu show the Shang importance of attributing symbols of mythological origins to rituals. This perhaps formed the foundations of earlier religious practices, which would develop into more elaborate forms in later periods. It could perhaps be speculated that inscriptions, motifs and combination of markings on the Houmuwu ties into identifying a specific reign or lineage. Therefore, the Houmuwu fits into the larger body of study regarding ancient sacrificial practices.

Reference

[1] Kwang-Chih Chang, “The Animal in Shang and Zhou Bronze Art.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 41, no. 2 (1981): 527.

[2] Pingxing Wang, The Jinsha Site: A 21st Century Discovery of Chinese Archaeology (Beijing: China Intercontinental Press), 91.

[3] Julia M. White, and Ronald Y. Otsuka, Pathways to the Afterlife:Early Chinese Art from the Sze Hong Collection, 16.

[4] Zhang Fa, The History and Spirit of Chinese Art: Volume 1 From Prehistory to the Tang Dynasty (Honolulu, Silkroad Press, 2016), 31.

[5] Su Qiang, “Houmuwu square cauldron”, The National Museum of China. http://en.chnmuseum.cn/tabid/549/ Default.aspx?AntiqueLanguage ID=2327.

[6] Pingxing Wang, The Jinsha Site: A 21st Century Discovery of Chinese Archaeology (Beijing: China Intercontinental Press), 91.

[7] Ladislav Kesner, “The Taotie Reconsidered: Meanings and Functions of the Shang Theriomorphic Imagery,” Artibus Asiae 51, no. 1/2 (1991): 29.

[8] Kwang-Chih Chang, “The Animal in Shang and Zhou Bronze Art.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 41, no. 2 (1981): 527.

[9] Ibid.,539-540.

[10] Li Song, Chinese Bronze Ware, 30. Sarah Allan, The Shape of the Turtle, The: Myth, Art, and Cosmos in Early China, (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991), 149.

[11] Jing Pei Fang, Symbols and Rebuses in Chinese Art:Figures, Bugs, Beasts and Flowers, (Ten Speed Press), 107.

[12] Lang Ye, Zhenggang Fei and Tianyou Wang, CHINA: Five Thousand Years of History & Civilization City, ed. H. K. Chang (Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong Press, 2007), 26.

[13] Kwang-Chih Chang, "The Rise of Kings and the Formation of City-States," in The Formation of Chinese Civilisation: An Archaeological Perspective, ed. Sarah Allan, 137-138.

[14] Elizabeth Childs-Johnson, "The Metamorphic Image: A Predominant Theme in the Ritual Art of Shang China," Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities 70, (1998), 17. Adam T. Kessler, Song Blue and White Porcelain on the Silk Road (Leiden: BRILL, 2012), 404.

[15] Zhixin Jason Sun et al., Age of Empires: Art of the Qin and Han Dynasties, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2017), 159.

Images

Header: Chen Rong, Nine Dragons, 1244. Ink and color on paper. 46.8 x 1496.5 cm. http://www.mfa.org/collections/object/nine-dragons-28526

Illustration of a taotie motif: Edith Watts, "The Great Bronze Age of China: An Exhibition from the People's Republic of China at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York", Asia for Educators: Columbia University. Last modified May 22 2009. http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_4000bce_bronze.htm.

Ink Rubbing of Handle: Zhang Fa, The History and Spirit of Chinese Art: Volume 1 From Prehistory to the Tang Dynasty (Honolulu, Silkroad Press, 2016), 32.

A handle of the "Houmuwu" that features the "taotie" motifs in profile: "King of Bronze Art" Last modified February 4, 2013, People's Daily. http://art.china.cn/huihua/2013-02/04/content_5720827.htm

https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/beta/asset/chariot-box-fitting-with-taotie-and-dragons/swGGI9C6227Zgg

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