Coral Reefs
Kaya Alexander
Embedded Files
A Tropical Coral Reef in Fiji
Image Credit: Brandon Cole, 2013
What Are Coral Reefs?
What Are Coral Reefs?
Coral reefs are composed of an intricate assortment of various species classified under the Animalia kingdom and most closely related to sea anemones and jellyfish.1 There is estimated to be about 6,000 different coral species currently in existence; some varieties live in cold deep waters while others thrive in shallow tropical pools. The small colonies of organisms that corals are composed of are called polyps. Polyps have a cylindrically shaped body with an opening surrounded by tentacles that gather nutrients and small organisms from the water.
Many corals have an algae residing within their polyps called zooxanthellae – the algae and coral form a symbiotic relationship in which the algae uses the coral’s waste products to help photosynthesize sunlight.2 The algae then produces organic compounds as a byproduct of photosynthesis that the corals utilize to grow and live, benefiting both species equally. This algae is what gives coral reefs their infamous colorful appearance, but the living coral and polyps are actually clear in appearance.
Coral reefs live for an incredibly long time, with some supposedly being over 10,000 years old!2 A distinct coral colony usually lives a few hundred years, however, and the individual polyps of the colony often only live for a few years.2
Much like that of rainforests, coral reefs are incredibly diverse habitats that provide shelter, food, and stimuli to thousands of different species including fish, sharks, octopi, mollusks, crabs, clams, sea urchins, rays and more – resulting in them hosting roughly 25% of all marine life.3 For this reason, coral reefs are an incredibly important marine ecosystem that is pivotal to the health of oceans around the globe.
Cross Section Diagram of a Coral Polyp
Image Credit: Emily Eng, 2018
Map of Coral Reef Locations
(Red indicates warm water species and blue indicates cold water species)
Image Credit: Bryant et al. 1998
Where Do Corals Live?
Where Do Corals Live?
Corals live all over the world, in both shallow and deep ocean waters. The brightly colored reef-building corals that most people are familiar with reside strictly in shallow warm waters (around 70-80 degrees Fahrenheit) with high visibility.4 These corals require clear waters to thrive because they rely on the algae in their polyps to photosynthesize sunlight – an energy source that can only be extracted if enough light can travel through the water.4
In contrast, there are also deep sea varieties of coral that do not rely on sunlight and can live in very cold temperatures. As depicted in the map on the left, corals can be found in coastal waters around much of the globe, but coral reefs that build upon previous corals exist only in tropical waters and are the ecosystems that inhabit the most diverse array marine life.1
What is Coral Bleaching?
What is Coral Bleaching?
When water temperatures rise a few degrees higher than the habitable range for corals, the algae living within each coral polyp dies and leaves behind the visibly white skeleton of the coral underneath. This white appearance does not necessarily indicate that the coral has died yet, but if enough time passes without the coral having the life-giving algae it needs to survive, then it will die and not be able to return to its previously alive state.5
This phenomena is called coral bleaching and is an increasingly imminent threat to coral species everywhere. Approximately 40% of coral cover has already been lost throughout the world due to bleaching. 8 The leading causes of coral reef loss are climate change, ocean acidification, terrestrial pollution, and fishing practices; all of which are human caused.6
Branching Staghorn Coral on the Great Barrier Reef During the 2017 Bleaching Event
Image Credit: Brett Monroe Garner, 2017
What Are the Socioeconomic and Ecological Impacts of Coral Reef Loss?
What Are the Socioeconomic and Ecological Impacts of Coral Reef Loss?
Socioeconomic Impacts
Reef loss results in a dramatic decline in fish populations since they no longer have suitable habitats to live in, and this ultimately effects nearby fishing industries significantly. This results in food shortages and market failures.6
Tropical coral reefs are a vital source of income for many tourist businesses and locations – a deficit of reefs can harm the income of people who rely on it for their livelihood.3
Coral reefs surrounding coastal areas serve as buffers to protect terrestrial human communities from intense waves and tsunamis. A lack of previously existing reefs can result in catastrophic damage to coastal developments.6
Ecological Impacts
Coral mortality is linked to a decreased diversity of surrounding marine life that rely on the reefs for necessary habitat to live and reproduce.7
The bleaching of corals often affects the species' ability to reproduce and grow effectively, thus resulting increased vulnerability to diseases and higher chances of death.7
The natural variety and layout of different coral species can be altered by increased coral mortality, therefore upsetting the previously balanced ecosystem and trophic levels.6
What Are the Ethical Impacts of Coral Reef Loss?
What Are the Ethical Impacts of Coral Reef Loss?
Left -Before: Bleached Coral
Right - After: Deceased Bleached Coral
Image Credit: Richard Vevers and Christophe Bailhache
Ethical Impacts & Arguments
Moral Obligations:
Corals have moral standing and therefore a right to live and continue their natural lifecycle, as all living beings do, without the threat of human encroachment.13
Extinction & Preservation:
Permanently losing any species of life or the entirety of a habitat is a tragedy, especially when it is caused by human activity and is therefore preventable.6
Humans are thus personally responsible for the preservation of corals.
Do Coral Reefs Have Moral Standing?
Do Coral Reefs Have Moral Standing?
From a strictly scientific basis, coral reefs are deemed insentient because they lack a central nervous system and therefore are said to not feel pain, according to human curated scientific data.9 Given this information, should we then deem them as not having moral standing since they are supposedly "unconscious"? A coral is equally as aware and alive as a tree, for example. We have laws all over the world protecting trees, not only for their proposed monetary worth but also for their well understood moral value as having a right to exist so that their species can continue to thrive for decades to come - as nature intended. Therefore, a living coral or a reef of corals should be given the same legal treatment as their terrestrial counterparts that are already protected.
Also in regards to the argument of what living beings should be deemed as "conscious", we have to remember that our scientific development of what it means to be conscious is still very primitive. In Robert Lanza and Bob Berman's book titled Biocentrism: How Life and Consciousness are the Keys to Understanding the True Nature of the Universe they bring up a very valid fact; we still have no scientific basis from which to even explain our own experience of consciousness, so how could possibly deem other beings as conscious or unconscious? On page 4, Lanza and Berman clarify this idea with regards to biology and physics:
Diver Near a Coral Wall in the Pacific Ocean
Image Credit: Unknown
"Life contains consciousness, but the latter is poorly understood and is, in any case, solely a matter for biologists. But there’s a problem. Consciousness is not just an issue for biologists; it’s a problem for physics. Nothing in modern physics explains how a group of molecules in your brain creates consciousness. The beauty of a sunset, the miracle of falling in love, the taste of a delicious meal – these are all mysteries to modern science. Nothing in science can explain how consciousness arose from matter. Our current model simply does not allow for consciousness, and our understanding of this most basic phenomenon of our existence is virtually nil."14
Coral Reef in the Red Sea
Image Credit: Francesco Ungaro
Humans are merely a species of animal just like any other, and prescribing our own set of beliefs and understandings onto all other species is inherently problematic because we will always have a bias that sees through a human-centered lens. For example, we might conclude that corals can't feel pain because they don't have central nervous systems because, up until now, our scientific understanding of an organism's bodily functions suggests that a living being cannot feel pain without said nervous system. This remains the current case, considering the vast majority of biologists and ethical philosophers still agree that consciousness is undoubtedly an evolved role of the nervous system,10 regardless of the fact that our understandings of consciousness are still very limited (as we see expressed by Lanza and Berman).
But even if we believe that corals don't have a biological mechanism through which to experience feeling, this does not necessarily mean they are devoid of it. Perhaps other species can experience positive or negative emotions that we can't quantify or understand because we cannot liken it to our own lived experience. In their article titled Evolutionary Economics of Animal Consciousness and Suffering Yew-Kwang states:
"If we discount panpsychism and believe that a necessary condition for mind is a functioning brain, then the similarity of the structure and functions of the brain of a species to those of our own may be important in influencing our belief as to its mental capabilities."10
Who are we, as simply one species in a metaphorical sea of millions, to decide the all-encompassing conditions that necessitate consciousness for other living beings? Surely it is probable that animals, plants, fungi, and other organisms can experience their surroundings in ways we are incapable of explaining; just because we can't define it in a "humanly understood" way or prove it to be true on a basis of science, does not mean that it isn't a valid and real experience. Likening other species to the mechanisms of our own cannot be a completely accurate means of defining pleasure, suffering, pain or consciousness.
It's also important to remember that corals are considered part of the animal kingdom and therefore we can realistically apply the same philosophical understandings to them that we do to other animals. Peter Singer said “All animals are equal” in which he implied not that all animals are scientifically or physically equal, but that they should be morally treated as equals.9
One might then take into account well-known philosopher Jeremy Bentham’s concept of moral standing, in which an animal is warranted as having moral standing if it has the capacity to suffer.9 Under this premise, someone might argue that coral reefs do not have moral standing as marine biologists have not proven that corals can suffer.9 This argument is valid, but it does not take into account that corals are still alive, are animals, and serve as vital habitats for other species of animals that do scientifically suffer and would suffer without the existence of said corals - such as fish, sharks, octopi, and mollusks.3 It would then be in the arguer’s interest to view corals as holding moral standing simply due to the fact that they are inextricably linked to the already well-known moral standing of thousands of other species that rely on them for food, shelter and survival. Ecosystems should be seen as interconnected super-organisms, in which all “separate” parts rely on one another in a symbiotic relationship, much like that of organs in a body.
This is not just a conceptual idea, it's a scientifically plausible one when we examine how energy is exchanged from one trophic level of an ecosystem to another. Coral reefs have an especially symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae, for example.2 Within this almost microscopic phenomena, we see an incredibly successful mutual relationship that’s existed for over 25 million years, and this is just one trophic level of the coral reef ecosystem.9 Another instance is Parrot fish that eat corals as their main source of nutrition, and then the energy the algae extracts from the sunlight moves from the coral into the body of the fish, and the exchange of energy continues up the food chain as the fish is eaten by other marine predators.9 It is within this cycle of energy that we can see, on a scientific level, that ecosystems are inherently connected (they literally transfer the exact same energy from one species to another). This collective connectivity of the coral reef ecosystem is illustrated clearly by J. Baird Callicott in The Conceptual Foundations of Land Ethic:
An Acropora Coral on the Great Barrier Reef
Image Credit: Innovation Toronto
“If human beings are, with other animals, plants, soils, and waters, equally members of the biotic community, and if community membership is the criterion of equal moral consideration, then not only do animals, plants, soils, and waters have equal (highly attenuated) "rights," but human beings are equally subject to the same subordination of individual welfare and rights in respect to the good of the community as a whole”.12
Image credit: Marek Okon in Chuuk Lagoon, Micronesia
Along those lines, we must then ask: if corals don’t have the capacity to suffer in ways we can scientifically understand or quantify, does that mean they also lack interests, as many ethical philosophers would contend? Singer says on page 52 of All Animals are Equal, “The capacity for suffering and enjoyment is a prerequisite for having interests at all, a condition that must be satisfied before we can speak of interests in a meaningful way."11 Corals might not technically suffer according to our basis (as humans) of what it means to suffer, but we could then argue against Singer's statement by contending that corals still have interests because they need food to survive – so one of their interests would be to consume nutrients through their polyps. Or perhaps we might consider that they have an interest in keeping the ocean temperatures stable so as to prevent their bodies from bleaching and ultimately dying. All animals are here on Earth to exist, and creating living conditions in which their existence is impossible is arguably undesirable or not in the animal's best interest; just because they don't have a central nervous system does not mean they wouldn't prefer to live and keep their genetic lineage going. How could we possibly disprove that when we, as humans, are not corals and therefore cannot accurately speak on behalf of their interests?
Should We Preserve Coral Reefs?
Should We Preserve Coral Reefs?
Yes, we should be taking steps toward preserving and restoring coral reefs because their demise has been almost entirely due to human activity6 and thus, it is our responsibility to secure the success of their future. I support scholar Eze Paez's ethical perspective of this topic, in which he explains that it is morally impermissible to allow natural places to be harmfully impacted by human development.13 I wish to leave you with this quote from Paez's article titled Preserving nature for the benefit of all sentient individuals:
"What kind of nature do we want to preserve for future generations of sentient human and nonhuman individuals? I believe that when we observe the facts, it becomes clear that we should not try to preserve nature as it would be were it not for human intervention. If nature, as it is, is harmful overall for sentient beings, we should try to improve it, inasmuch as we can."13
Maui, Hawaii
Image Credit: Kyle @SubtleCinematics
Sources
Sources
Basic information about coral reefs. (2018, May 04). Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/coral-reefs/basic-information-about-coral-reefs
Simmons, C. (2019, November 22). How long do corals live? Retrieved from https://sciencing.com/long-do-corals-live-5908177.html
National Geographic Society. (2019, August 28). Coral. Retrieved from https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/coral/
The Ocean Portal Team Reviewed by Nancy Knowlton. (2020, February 19). Corals and coral reefs. Retrieved from https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/corals-and-coral-reefs
US Department of Commerce, N. (2018, October 29). Are corals animals or plants? Retrieved from https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral.html
Brodie, J., & Waterhouse, J. (2012, June 1). A critical review of environmental management of the ‘not so Great’ Barrier Reef. Retrieved from Science Direct. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2012.03.012
Bleaching impacts. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://reefresilience.org/stressors/bleaching/bleaching-impacts/
Bleached to death. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.downtoearth.org.in/coverage/climate-change/bleached-to-death-56019
Animal Ethics. (2020, April 29). What beings are not conscious. Retrieved from https://www.animal-ethics.org/sentience-section/animal-sentience/beings conscious/#:~:text=Non%2Dsentient%20animals,that%20all%20animals%20are%20sentient.&text=Non%2Dsentient%20animals%20would%20then,corals%2C%20anemones%2C%20and%20hydras.
Ng, YK. Towards welfare biology: Evolutionary economics of animal consciousness and suffering. Biol Philos 10, 255–285 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00852469
Singer, P. (2019). All animals are equal. Ideals and Ideologies, 453-463. doi:10.4324/9780429286827-73
Zimmerman, M. E., Callicott, J. B., Sessions, G., Warren, K. J., & Clark, J. (Eds.). (1993). Environmental Philosophy: From Animal Rights to Radical Ecology.
Paez, E. (2020). Preserving nature for the benefit of all sentient individuals. Animal Sentience, 4(27). doi:10.51291/2377-7478.1551
Lanza, R., & Berman, B. (2009). Biocentrism: How life and consciousness are the keys to understanding the true nature of the universe. In Biocentrism: How Life and Consciousness Are the Keys to Understanding the True Nature of the Universe. Dallas, Tex: BenBella.
Image Sources
Bright corals and schooling fish on tropical reef in Fiji by Brandon Cole. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://fineartamerica.com/featured/bright-corals-and-schooling-fish-on-tropical-reef-in-fiji-brandon-cole.html
Coral polyps. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://coral.org/coral-reefs-101/coral-reef-ecology/coral-polyps/
Team, I. (2018, December 01). Will coral reefs survive the next 50 years, and what impact might their loss have if they don't? Retrieved from https://medium.com/ideas-on-info/will-coral-reefs-survive-the-next-50-years-and-what-impact-might-their-loss-have-if-they-dont-cc7bfc3469df
Davidson, J. (2021, March 11). 'Unchartered territory': Great Barrier Reef has third major bleaching in 5 years. From https://www.ecowatch.com/coral-bleaching-great-barrier-reef-2645576557.html
Secon, H. (2020, February 26). All coral reefs could die by the end of the century, new research shows. before-and-after photos show what that would look like. Retrieved from https://www.businessinsider.com/coral-reefs-vanish-by-2100-before-and-after-photos-2020-2
A diver explores the vertical distribution of corals on a Pacific wall. Pacific Ocean, Western Tropical.: Scuba DIVING, amazing places on EARTH, Wildlife tour. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.pinterest.com/pin/24769866671267017/
Bringing corals back from the brink. (2020, May 03). Retrieved from https://innovationtoronto.com/2013/09/bringing-corals-back-brink/
Okon, M. (2019, February 27). Photo by MAREK okon on Unsplash. Retrieved from https://unsplash.com/photos/tWWCqIMiUmg
Ungaro, F. (2020, February 29). Photo by Francesco UNGARO on Unsplash. Retrieved from https://unsplash.com/photos/hqAGgNsMpEY
Cinematics, S. (2020, March 04). Photo by Subtle cinematics on Unsplash. Retrieved from https://unsplash.com/photos/O5Fr1BZ-aR4
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