RESEARCH

Abstract. This paper studies the effects of aerial fumigation of banana plantations on newborns’ birth weight during the period 2015-2017 in Ecuador. We use mothers’ addresses and information on the perimeter of the plantations to create an individual measure of newborns’ exposure to pesticides. We use this measure to implement three independent identification strategies to address the endogeneity of exposure to aerial fumigations. First, we estimate a difference-in-differences strategy that exploits seasonal variations in the use of pesticides across provinces. Second, we estimate a difference-in-differences model that considers geographical variations in the use of pesticides across comparable crops. Third, and finally, we estimate a maternal fixed effects model to examine the effect of pesticides on siblings who had a different residence during gestation and who were exposed to different levels of fumigations. Our first empirical estimation shows that newborns exposed to pesticides have a birth weight reduction of between 38 and 89 grams, when their first gestational trimester coincides with the periods of intensive fumigations of the plantations. Moreover, exposure to pesticides increases the likelihood of low birth weight and low Apgar score at first minute. The second model finds that newborns exposed to fumigated banana plantations have a birth weight deficit of between 29 and 76 grams, when compared to those exposed to other fumigated crops. Finally, the maternal fixed effect model show that girl newborns exposed to pesticides have a birth weight deficit of 346 grams when compared to non-exposed siblings.

Abstract. This paper studies whether the toughening of the laws to regulate violence against women can adversely generate a retaliation effect that temporary increases female homicides. Using a panel of 2167 solved female homicides in Ecuador from 2010 to 2020, I first analyze the characteristics and trends of female gender-violence victims and I compare them with the evolution of other-violence victims. Second, I analyze the effects of a reform of the penal code introduced in 2014 that modified the consideration of gender violence and increased the penalty for femicides. I exploit the fact that women empowerment and the enforcement of the law was not homogeneous across municipalities to test whether these policies were associated with a backlash effect that temporarily increased female homicide rates. My analysis finds an increment in the gender-violence rates in municipalities that enforced the introduction of the new femicide penalty type, and in municipalities exhibiting an increased level of women empowerment. Specifically, I obtain that in municipalities that introduced the new femicide type and with an increased level of women empowerment, there was an increase of gender-violence rates of 1.49 points, relative to those that experienced gender-violence but not enforced the new femicide type. These results suggest evidence for an early formation of the retaliation effect hypothesis that consider that gender equality policies and legislation reforms to toughening the penalties for femicides can generate (at least temporarily) an increase of gender violence.

Abstract. This paper studies the impact of the mothers’ indirect exposure to homicides on newborns’ health outcomes. To do so, I combine two data sets that reflect the mothers’ home address during pregnancy and the geographical coordinates of all the homicides that occurred in Ecuador in the period 2015 to 2017. To deal with endogeneity with respect to crime exposure, I use three empirical strategies. Firstly, I estimate the difference in birth weight between infants whose mothers are exposed to high versus low levels of homicide rates at a municipality level. Secondly, I use a DID estimation approach that analyzes the difference between being exposed to a homicide during pregnancy or not, relative to the analogous difference of being exposed within the 9 months following the newborns’ birth. I also examine whether the maternal stress related to homicide exposure is attenuated when the mother had previously been exposed to other crimes. Lastly, I use a maternal fixed-effects estimation that considers mothers who had several children in the period studied and who were subject to different exposure levels. The results show that exposure to homicides during pregnancy generates a birth weight deficit of between 20 and 31 grams, compared to newborns exposed to homicides post-pregnancy. Moreover, once controlled by the maternal fixed effects, I find that newborns exposed to homicides have a birth weight deficit of between 110 and 257 grams, compared to their non-exposed siblings. Additionally, exposure to homicides generates a reduction in gestation length, and a decrease in the 1st minute Apgar score. I further demonstrate no confounding effects with relation to income and nutrition due to the occurrence of violent crimes. These findings appeal for health policies that address the stress of affected individuals.

Abstract. This paper studies the causal effect of COVID-19 pandemic curfew and lockdown durations, on gender violence measured by the female homicides rates across Ecuadorian municipalities. To overcome potential endogeneity concerns due to heterogeneous intensity in restrictions durations, we implement an instrumental variable approach that adjusts the duration of the lockdown and each of the ‘redlight’ policy stages based on the lags of contagion rates and the length of the policy. We show that the generalized lockdown led to an 0.91 percentage points increase of female homicide rates (12.75% in the pre-lockdown period), and the less restrictive mobility measures led to a 0.23 to 0.8 pp increases. These results are in line with very recent evidence of the COVID-19 lockdowns and violence against women during the pandemic. These findings appeal for policy interventions addressed to avoid violence against women during mobility restriction and emergencies.