probably in the most nuclear ways, and our incoming human race may be victimized in ways we do not yet understand.43 Principal concerns apart from illegal germline mutation include the morality, the eugenics helping the fittest to survive, ongoing clinical debates about informed consent, religious debate, the possible rise of clones, designer babies, and possibly superhumans.44–46 Moreover, the current literature also rules in the possibility of genome editing as a future weapon of war.47 While the quest for a healthy baby and right of best possible treatment choice have been acknowledged in many societies, the approaching biotechnological revolution seems imminent and undeniable. The pressing need, therefore demands a harmonious and regulated translation of needed aspects of genome-editing-related technologies for molecular medicine and other non-clinical crop and food industries. This will need consensus in public opinion, debates among experts, involvement of biotechnologists, opinions of bioethical experts, regulatory frameworks within legislatures, and final guidelines and oversight for the finally allowed limited application. Conclusions This review discussed multiples aspects of genome-editing technologies, including a classification; some basic explanatory concepts on mechanisms; and comparison between methods, newer advancements, and bioethical concerns. It seems that CRISPR/Cas technologies are probably superseding ZFNs and TALENS. However, the CRIPSR/ Cas methods are also being improvised, and newer additions have further enhanced its functional capabilities with reduced off-target effects. Furthermore, the process of engineering better gene modification technologies is evolving and can one day replace even CRISPR/ Cas, possibly shifting to synthetic genomics. Among all these revolutionary developments, bioethical concerns need serious attention. NA cutter (ARCUT) to promote its in vivo and in vitro applications. Artif. DNA PNA XNA 5, e1112457. 9. Ito, K., and Komiyama, M. (2014). Site-selective scission o Genome editing¾a suite of methods for creating changes in DNA more accurately and flexibly than previous approaches¾was hailed as the 2011 Method of the Year by Nature Methods, and the CRISPR/Cas9 system of genome editing was named the 2015 Breakthrough of the Year by Science. The technology has excited interest across the globe because of the insights it may offer into fundamental biological processes and the advances it may bring to human health. But with these advances come many questions, about the technical aspects of achieving desired results while avoiding unwanted effects, and about a range of uses that may include not only healing the sick, but also preventing disease in ourselves and future generations, or even altering traits unrelated to health needs. Now is the time to consider these questions. Clinical trials using edited human somatic cells are already underway and more are already anticipated. To help direct the use of genome editing toward broadly promoting human wellbeing, it is important to examine the scientific, ethical, and social issues it raises, and assess the capacity of governance systems to ensure its responsible development and use. Doing this also entails articulating the larger principles that should underlie such systems. These were not easy tasks, but we are profoundly grateful to the committee members who joined us in tackling our charge. They willingly and thoughtfully brought their diverse perspectives to bear on our discussions, and we thank them for their commitment to this study and for devoting so much of their time and energy over the last year. It has been a pleasure and a privilege to work with them. The report was also informed by many presentations and discussions with speakers whose contributions provided a wealth of information and insight. We thank them for sharing their research and viewpoints with us. Finally, on behalf of the committee, we would like to thank the staff of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine for working alongside us throughout the study¾their ideas and support have been crucial to bringing the project to fruition¾and thank the sponsors of the study, who had an expansive vision for its potential. R. Alta Charo and Richard O. Hynes, Co-Chairs Committee on Human Gene Editing: Scientific, Medical, and Genome editing2 is a powerful new tool for making precise additions, deletions, and alterations to the genome—an organism’s complete set of genetic material. The development of new approaches—involving the use of meganucleases; zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs); transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs); and, most recently, the CRISPR/Cas9 system—has made editing of the genome much more precise, efficient, flexible, and less expensive relative to previous strategies. With these advances has come an explosion of interest in the possible applications of genome editing, both in conducting fundamental research and potentially in promoting human health through the treatment or prevention of disease and disability. The latter possibilities range from restoring normal function in diseased organs by editing somatic cells to preventing genetic diseases in future children and their descendants by editing the human germline. As with other medical advances, each