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Voltage traces recorded by EEG electrodes are described as waves. They are defined in terms of three parameters: amplitude, frequency, and phase. Another important unit describing brainwaves in an EEG is brainwave spectral power expressed in Volts-squared per Hz (V2/Hz). This unit derives from the spectral analysis of the electroencephalogram. Absolute brainwave power describes the power of certain frequency components present in the time period whereas relative brainwave power reflects the role of a specific frequency in the context of all frequencies, e.g., the percentage of the absolute power of a certain frequency in the whole power spectrum.

The alpha rhythm is typically seen in at least three different types, which are different in topography and function. First, the posterior alpha rhythm, originating from the parietooccipital cortex, is dependent on the alertness and attentional factors. Second, there is the mu rhythm, which is dominant in central electrodes and is related to the somatosensory cortex and movement. Third, the tau rhythm originates from the auditory cortex. It is important to stress that alpha power and brain activity are inversely related. This means that, roughly speaking, the bigger the alpha power, the less active the brain (1). The alpha rhythm is typically predominant in the awake-resting state, either relaxed and comfortable (desynchronised tonic slow alpha) (3) or concentrated (4) (phasic desynchronised alpha), as well as in the case of alpha coma (1).

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The beta rhythm is usually associated with cortical integrity, increased alertness, and cognitive processes (2). Beta waves primarily occur during the awake-state, and an increase in beta power can be caused by stress, strong emotions, and tension. The absence of beta waves is seen in the cases of cortical injuries and might be used as an indicator of compromised cortical functions (5).

Sonata K448 is also known to improve spatial performance. A few brainwave patterns correlating to this improvement are lowered theta power in the left temporal area; increased beta range in the left temporal, the left frontal, and the right temporal regions; increased alpha 1 power left temporally. Again, these patterns have been found to emerge while listening to this particular piece (8).

The effect of music, however, might not be dependent on a specific piece. According to scientists, music that is personally liked by the subjects turns out to enhance EEG power spectra globally and also across bandwidths. The effect is best seen in beta and alpha frequencies in the right frontal and temporal regions. Disliked music, musical improvisations, or white noise (a random signal having equal intensity at different frequencies) do not seem to have the same impact, although white noise also produces similar responses on the left hemisphere (9).

A study investigating traditional Indonesian music found that it significantly increases beta power activity, averaged over the posterior two thirds of the scalp. In this case, however, no effect on alpha waves was seen. Also, comparing the periods of silence and music, listening to music recruited new areas of the brain into the active processes, such as the posterior part of the precuneus, which also had an increase in cerebral blood flow. According to the authors, this effect may reflect the impact of music on cognitive processes, such as music-evoked memory recall or visual imagery (10).

Not only listening (perceiving) but also imagining music elicits the posterior alpha activity. Actually, imagery causes significantly greater alpha power in posterior areas than does perception. This effect might indicate the inhibition of non-task relevant cortical areas, in this case, posterior areas, which are not so important for the perception of music and therefore inhibited stronger while listening to music rather than while imagining it (16).

The valence of music may also be a factor determining the effect it has on the brain. An impact of positively and negatively valenced sounds (e.g., consonant and dissonant chords) was described in a study, which investigated seven patients with intracranial electrodes implanted for presurgical evaluation. Results revealed an increase in the power of low frequency brainwaves in the auditory cortex and, later, a more gradual increase in theta and alpha power in the amygdalae and orbitofrontal cortex, which seem to be important for a higher analysis of music. Also, three subjects saw greater power in alpha, theta and low beta waves in the orbitofrontal cortex while listening to consonant rather than dissonant sounds. No changes in brainwave patterns in the amygdalae were seen when comparing dissonant and consonant sounds (11). This effect is also seen in another study, which shows that positively valenced pieces of music tend to elicit a greater theta power in mid-frontal electrodes than do negatively valenced pieces. Furthermore, this effect increases towards the end of a piece of music. According to the authors, this theta activity is connected not only to attentional but also to emotional functions (2).

Investigations of the impact of music on comatose patients with traumatic brain injuries have shown that applying long-term music therapy decreases their quantitative EEG value + / + (1) 8 by decreasing the amount of low frequency waves ( and ) and increasing the amount of high frequency waves ( + ). Since coma usually presents a decreased and slowed brainwave activity, this shift to an increased amount of high frequency waves shows an activation of the brain.

The minimally conscious state is typically seen in EEGs as a spectral peak in the theta range. Studies show (21, 22) that music personally liked by a patient may induce alpha frequency amplitude peaks in both the right and the left hemispheres (9).

Music can have a profound effect on both the emotions and the body. Faster music can make you feel more alert and concentrate better. Upbeat music can make you feel more optimistic and positive about life. A slower tempo can quiet your mind and relax your muscles, making you feel soothed while releasing the stress of the day. Music is effective for relaxation and stress management.

Research confirms these personal experiences with music. Current findings indicate that music around 60 beats per minute can cause the brain to synchronize with the beat causing alpha brainwaves (frequencies from 8 - 14 hertz or cycles per second). This alpha brainwave is what is present when we are relaxed and conscious. To induce sleep (a delta brainwave of 5 hertz), a person may need to devote at least 45 minutes, in a relaxed position, listening to calming music. Researchers at Stanford University have said that "listening to music seems to be able to change brain functioning to the same extent as medication." They noted that music is something that almost anybody can access and makes it an easy stress reduction tool.

So what type of music reduces stress the best? A bit surprising is that Native American, Celtic, Indian stringed-instruments, drums, and flutes are very effective at relaxing the mind even when played moderately loud. Sounds of rain, thunder, and nature sounds may also be relaxing particularly when mixed with other music, such as light jazz, classical (the "largo" movement), and easy listening music. Since with music we are rarely told the beats per minute, how do you choose the relaxation music that is best for you? The answer partly rests with you: You must first like the music being played, and then it must relax you. You could start by simply exploring the music on this web page. Some may relax you, some may not. Forcing yourself to listen to relaxation music that irritates you can create tension, not reduce it. If that happens, try looking for alternatives on the internet or consult with Counseling Service staff for other musical suggestions. It is important to remember that quieting your mind does not mean you will automatically feel sleepy. It means your brain and body are relaxed, and with your new calm self, you can then function at your best in many activities.

Classical Indian Music for Healing and Relaxing

Gayatri Govindarajan, "Pure Deep Meditation" track. Lovely and rhythmic music played on the veena, the most ancient of the Indian plucked-instruments, with nature scenes.

Neurofeedback through visual, auditory, or tactile sensations improves cognitive functions and alters the activities of daily living. However, some people, such as children and the elderly, have difficulty concentrating on neurofeedback for a long time. Constant stressless neurofeedback for a long time may be achieved with auditory neurofeedback using music. The primary purpose of this study was to clarify whether music-based auditory neurofeedback increases the power of the alpha wave in healthy subjects. During neurofeedback, white noise was superimposed on classical music, with the noise level inversely correlating with normalized alpha wave power. This was a single-blind, randomized control crossover trial in which 10 healthy subjects underwent, in an assigned order, normal and random feedback (NF and RF), either of which was at least 4 weeks long. Cognitive functions were evaluated before, between, and after each neurofeedback period. The secondary purpose was to assess neurofeedback-induced changes in cognitive functions. A crossover analysis showed that normalized alpha-power was significantly higher in NF than in RF; therefore, music-based auditory neurofeedback facilitated alpha wave induction. A composite category-based analysis of cognitive functions revealed greater improvements in short-term memory in subjects whose alpha-power increased in response to NF. The present study employed a long period of auditory alpha neurofeedback and achieved successful alpha wave induction and subsequent improvements in cognitive functions. Although this was a pilot study that validated a music-based alpha neurofeedback system for healthy subjects, the results obtained are encouraging for those with difficulty in concentrating on conventional alpha neurofeedback.Trial registration: 2018077NI, date of registration: 2018/11/27. e24fc04721