The Middle East and North Africa region boasts a rich tapestry of diverse cultures, which extends to the wide scope of regional and folk dance forms that are cherished and practiced by its residents to this day. Here is a short overview of just a few of the most prominent dances you can find in the region. 

1. Belly Dance 

Also commonly referred to as Raqs Sharqi ― literally translated as “dance of the east” in Arabic ― this is perhaps one of the most widely depicted and stereotypically portrayed cultural components assigned to the Middle East in Western media and popular culture. These portrayals frequently reduce belly dancing to a hypersexualised and exoticised performance with a focus on revealing costumes and suggestive movements, thereby obscuring the artistic significance of the dance form as an instrument of expression and storytelling. The English-language term for the dance may distort its true diversity and complexity, as it zooms in on one specific body part despite the fact that it also involves articulated and intricate movements of the hips, torso and arms. Originating in Egypt, Raqs Sharqi is not limited to one specific choreography and has developed into differing forms across regions such as Lebanon. Strictly sticking to traditions, it is not necessarily an event performed on stage, but is practised for social gatherings at home and can be found at a multitude of events, such as weddings and birthday celebrations. 

2. Dabke 

Dabke is a popular group dance with origins in the Levant region, including Palestine, Lebanon, Jordan and Syria, and carries a rich history and cultural nuances. Its name is derived from the Levantine Arabic word dabaka which means “to make a noise.” It is characterised by synchronised circle formations in which dancers link arms and perform 

rhythmic steps to traditional music played on instruments such as the oud and the tabla. Slight variations of the dance also exist beyond the Levant, such as the Iraqi Chobi. Given its status as a social activity, it is typical to see this dance performed during festivals and celebrations. Although there are many versions of dabke, the common variant involves intricate footwork on both sides, accompanied by small hops. Dabke is often led by the most skilled dancer in the group, as performers stand in a straight line or semicircle

3. Sufi Whirling 

This dance form, also referred to as Sufi spinning, is an expression of physically active meditation that originated among followers of Sufism, a form of Islamic mysticism. Some Sufi organisations employ devotional music and ceremonial activities, resembling dancing, to improve their experience of closeness to God. The dance consists of dancers spinning in repetitive circles, symbolising spiritual ascent and union with the divine. Although this practice is most commonly associated today with the Dervishes of Turkey, it can also be observed in Egypt and Iran. 

4. Raqs Al Assaya (Cane Dance) 

This dance features canes and is an opportunity for dancers to highlight hipwork, all while showcasing their dexterity and balance. Wielding wooden canes is a central feature of this dance form, as it is based on tahtib, a martial arts-esque activity performed by men from the Upper Egypt region. Given its likeness to tahtib, it is comprised of the presentation of a feminine alternative to using a “weapon” for fun. 

5. Khaleeji Dance 

Hailing from the Arabian Gulf region, this dance form is particularly popular in countries like Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Bahrain and Kuwait. It is also known as the Hair Dance due to its incorporation of women tossing their hair and gracefully making small gliding steps in large groups, alongside intricate footwork, hand gestures, and hip swaying to music. The women’s large dresses and vibrant costumes complete the performance. 

Sources: 

https://www.sfwa.org/2023/03/07/belying-the-belly-dancer-misconceptions-of-raqs-sharqi-that-need-t o-be-corrected-in-your-writing/ 

https://www.sharqidance.com/blog/bellydance-history-baggage 

https://u.osu.edu/sellman.13/2021/05/01/dabke-dance-a-shared-tradition-of-the-levant/ https://www.institute.global/insights/geopolitics-and-security/what-sufism 

https://greenstone.dance/tag/what-is-raqs-al-assaya/ 

https://ahlamdancetheatre.com/project/khaleegy/

Mutabbal A silky, smoky dip made with grilled eggplants as its main star; its flavour is accentuated by the addition of garlic, lemon, yogurt, and tahina. 

Mutabbal is considered to be derived from another dish called Baba Ghanoush. Often, the two are mixed up as they have the same base ingredients. Both feature grilled eggplants mashed with different ingredients, with Baba Ghanoush being more on the spicier side. Legend has it, Baba Ghanoush was invented by a person close to a rich sultan who was thought to be spoiled, hence the name of this dish translating to mean “pampered daddy.” Nevertheless, this odd legend behind a simple dish did not stop it from evolving to produce its milder version: mutabbal. Till this day, mutabbal is enjoyed widely around the world but particularly in the Levant region where it hails from. 

Hummus A versatile dish which you could have as a dip or a spread made with mashed chickpeas blended with tahina, garlic and lemon; bringing to the forefront a unique taste unlike anything else. 

Hummus is a dish that’s widely loved around the world due to its versatile nature. The wide consensus is that its roots trace back to areas which have historically known to have cultivated chickpeas, Southwest Asia in particular. The first record of this dish was found in a cookbook which dates all the way back to 13th century Cairo, although the recipe did not include tahina or garlic. However, the dish was further developed to resemble to be more like the one we eat today in 18th century Damascus, Syria. This modern version has an addition of  ingredients like lemon, sesame and garlic; classic staples of Syrian cuisine.

Sujuk A dish inherited by the Middle East as a remnant of the Ottoman Empire; A kind of sausage which tends to be a little spicy and has been fermented. 

Sujuk is widely enjoyed in a plethora of areas, from the Balkans to the Middle East. The first mention of sujuk traces all the way back to 11th century China, by Mahmud Al-Kashgari. It is thought to have been a favourite amongst soldiers in the Ottoman Empire, as it was also fairly convenient to prepare. Traditionally, sujuk is made by drying the mixture of spiced ground beef and fat under the sun and letting it ferment to give its distinct, peppery taste. This explains why it is named sujuk in the first place; its name is believed to be derived from the Arabic word “sujukh” which means “dried.”

3ish Baladi Native to Cairo’s buzzing streets, this is a kind of flatbread made with whole wheat flour that perfectly pairs with everything and anything. 

3ish Baladi translates to mean “bread of my country”; paying homage to Egypt. It is as though this small staple, which one would have with almost every meal, shouts out its patriotism at every dinner table around Egypt. It is not merely seen as bread, but rather a symbol of love for one’s history, culture, and native land. This bread is traditionally made in a clay pot, and its method of preparation has remained to be the same for centuries. 

It erased the lines between social classes back in ancient times; pharoahs and peasants both enjoyed 3ish Baladi albeit in their own way. 

Tabouleh This salad from the Levant is made only with finely chopped parsley, tomatoes, mint, onions, and bulgur, and dressed with lemon juice and olive oil. It is made c/m with the most simple ingredients yet promises to be unforgettable. 

In the Middle Ages, edible herbs were a central part of the Arab diet. Tabouleh has come all the way from the mountains of Syria and Lebanon, where such herbs known as “qadb”, were cultivated and found in abundance. In addition to this, the Baqaa Valley of Lebanon provided the optimum resources to make bulgur, which is another main ingredient of this dish. The combination of these earthy herbs and ingredients formulated present day Tabouleh adored by many.

Koshary May seem like an odd blend at first sight, but is a crowd-favourite throughout Egypt; found at every corner of every street. This dish has multiple components like macaroni, rice, black lentils, and most importantly fried onions, which are layered and then a succulent tomato sauce is drizzled over. Some even like an addition of Shatta - a spicy chilli sauce which perfectly compliments this unconventional yet delicious dish. 

One of the earliest mentions of Koshary could be found in the Egyptian Books of Genesis. The ancient Egyptian term “Koshir” meant the “food of the rites of the Gods”, contrastingly, nowadays Koshari is known as the “food of the poor.” Koshir was a breakfast dish which had lentils, wheat, chickpeas onions and garlic all cooked together in a flavorful concoction in a clay pot. Koshary is a product of Koshir’s evolution, and is a widely available dish all throughout Egypt. It can be found on food carts, or nestled in people’s homes, or even in conferences.

Umm Ali Translating directly to mean “Mother of Ali”, this dessert is one beloved to Egypt. A kind of bread pudding, it is made with layers of crispy puff pastry laced with sweet milk, and sometimes with nuts, which is baked altogether.

Legend has it, this dessert originated to mark the celebration of the death of Shajar al-Durr, who was married to one of Egypt’s first Mamluk Sultans, Izz al-Din Aybak, and in pursuit of obtaining power, allegedly plotted his murder. She was killed in retribution and to celebrate her death Om Ali, Aybak’s first wife, ordered the preparation of this dessert. Soon after, this dessert became quite popular and eventually was named after Om Ali.

Namoura One could think of this dessert as a close relative to basbousa. This eggless cake is made with semolina and is paired with a rosy, sugar syrup. 

Namoura is quite popular in Lebanon, and to understand its history it should be considered where its muse, Basbousa, originated from. Basbousa dates back to the 16th century in the Ottoman Empire, it was introduced to celebrate the conquest of Armenia. The semolina cake at the time was called “revani” and is still referred to as such by Turkish people. Overtime, this dessert also evolved to include and exclude ingredients, with each version having an identity of its own despite resembling each other. 

   When greeting family and friends, people all over the MENA region have similar ways of showing their appreciation for the person they’re meeting. While the culture on this is very similar across the region, there are a few differences in how people greet each other. The one commonality across the entire MENA region is that men and women traditionally do not make physical contact when greeting each other unless they are direct family members. This is directly related to the high influence of Islam on the region. Therefore, unless a woman extends her hand for greeting first, men do not move to shake a woman’s hand first Often people will put their right palm over their heart as a form of greeting.

   Outside the traditional handshakes, people in the region commonly give each other kisses on the cheek when greeting each other. Depending on the country of origin, the number of kisses changes. For instance, Moroccans exchange two kisses on the cheek, starting on the left. In the case that a man and woman are greeting each other unless the woman extends her hand out first in greeting, the man will bow his head in greeting. The same in Egypt; typically one kiss on the right and one on the left is enough. People in the Levant, namely Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan, usually do three kisses, right-left-right; sometimes stressing the last kiss to show appreciation for the other person. When greeting the elderly, people will often kiss the person’s forehead or right hand as a sign of respect for the person.

   Taking things a step further than kissing, people in the Gulf, namely the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait and Oman, greet each other by rubbing their noses together. You read that right. The nose symbolises pride and honour, making it the perfect way to greet someone to show them respect. Furthermore, it illustrates equality between the two people exchanging “nose kisses.”

   States in the Mediterranean are very similar in the way in which they greet each other. Depending on who you are interacting with, it is important to keep in mind the small cultural differences as well as the religious traditions which people in the MENA region may follow.

Sources:

https://www.journeybeyondtravel.com/morocco/culture-etiquette 

https://kawa-news.com/en/nose-rubbing-where-does-this-traditional-gulf-arab-greeting-come-fro m/ 

https://kaleela.com/en/traditional-greetings-in-some-arabic-speaking-countries

https://www.quora.com/How-do-people-in-Saudi-Arabia-greet-each-other 

   Calligraphy combines the word beauty (kallos) and writing (graphos) from Greek Origin. It is an art of visually stylized lettering and has evolved into an art form across many cultures around the World. In the Islamic World, Arabic calligraphy finds roots in the Quran yet has become an integral part of art, architecture,  gracing mosques, palaces, and decorative objects. It symbolizes the beauty of the Arabic language and the cultural heritage of the Arabic World. It is admired for its aesthetic value, expressiveness, and mastery of a technique.  

There are numerous styles of Arabic calligraphy, which can be labeled as the “Six Pens”.Yet each possesses distinct characteristics. 

• Kufic: recognized for its bold, angular lines and geometric shapes 

• Thuluth: brings a touch of elegance with its flowing curves and elongates ascenders and descenders. 

• Naskh: known more for its clarity and legibility, namely more straightforward and well-proportioned letters 

• Muhaqqaq: contains thick strokes and generous spacing, mainly used on monumental inscriptions on buildings

• Rayhani: maintains the bold features of Muhaqqaq, but on a smaller scale and puts more emphasis on stylization, making it well suited for decorative items 

• Riqa’: the practical everyday style of writer; quick, simple, and cursive 

Many countries in the MENA Region actively preserve and practice multiple Arabic Calligraphy styles. Contemporary calligraphers often draw inspiration from various historical styles, sometimes blending them in unique ways. Calligraphers are regarded very highly in the Arabic world, as mastering a skill in Arabic calligraphy takes years of training by copying models to perfect the different types of strokes and styles. 

The traditional tools used in calligraphy are very sophisticated. The  Qalam (Pen) is the core instrument of calligraphy, it is made from dried reeds or bamboo. Calligraphers cut and shape the pen to control ink flow and line thickness. These elements contribute to the unique style and strokes they specialize in. The second tool is the Ink, back in the day it was naturally prepared from substances like soot, plant extracts, minerals, etc. Today, there are modern bottled inks that offer a wide range of colors and special effects, for example metallic. Yet many calligraphers still prefer the richness and flow of natural inks. The last main tool is, as one would expect, historically, sized paper was treated with starch and other solutions to create a smooth, non-absorbent surface for writing yet nowadays there is often specialized  paper designed with smooth, ink-friendly surfaces for the sole purpose of calligraphy drawings. 

Sources 

https://www.metmuseum.org/learn/educators/curriculum-resources/art-of-the-islamic-world/~/media/Files/Learn/For%20Educators/Publications%20for%20Educators/Islamic%20Teacher%20Resource/Unit2.pdf

What comes to your mind when you hear the word Arab?

In a poll conducted by Historum, 42% of participants answered “camels and deserts”, whilst nearly a quarter thought of “terrorism and bombings”, swiftly followed by “belly dancing” with 8.8% of votes [1]. These responses illustrate some of the misconceptions held by westerners in regard to Arab culture, society and people; in other words they are stereotypes. Stereotypes have a cognitive purpose, in which they provide a shortcut for defining and categorizing different groups [2]. They can thus promote hostilities between groups when applying these generalizations to individuals [3].

Western popular media is notorious for perpetuating stereotypes, leading to an increase in anti-Arab sentiment and Islamophobia in Europe and North America [4]. Movies and TV series from these regions often portray Arab men as being “violent, irrational, backwards, terrorists, radical, untrustworthy, inferior and tribal”, while women are seen as “shallow, ignorant, obedient, extremists, religious and uneducated” [5]. A recent example of that would be the “Dune: Part Two” movie, released in 2024. Having been shot in the UAE and Jordan, as well as using Arabic words (jinn, mahdi, jihad) and clothes resembling abayas and niqabs, the film is a direct adaptation of a Westerner’s idea of the Arab world; all whilst lacking proper Arab representation [6].

(Excerpt from “Dune: Part 2” (2024), showing women in abaya-like clothing)

Another similar case would be “Homeland”, a critically acclaimed TV show following CIA agents fighting against extremist Arabs (which constitute most representation of Arabs in the show). In an infamous scene, one of the characters walks through Hamra street in Beirut Lebanon, which is depicted as a narrow dirt road full of armed and violent militia men, when in fact the shopping district is known for its nice cafes and nightlife. To make matters worse, it was later revealed that the scene was shot in Israel, a known enemy state of Lebanon [7].

As was illustrated with the previous examples, stereotypes aren’t solely limited to Arab people, but our culture, communities and countries. A study sampling of nearly 300 Western movie scenes deduced that for every movie representing 1 “peaceful” Arab country, 4 are portraying “troubled” Arab states. Furthermore, there are twice as many movies with “uncivilized” Arab characters, as there are with “civilized” Arab characters [8].

Having outlined the bias and prejudice demonstrated by Western popular culture, its effect on non-Arabs’ views of the Arab world is quite extensive. While believing that all Arabs are muslim, or that all Arab states have deserts are relatively harmless misconceptions, thinking that Arabs are religious extremists or that Arab states are dangerous are significantly more hostile concepts. That being said, stereotypes are generally less binary; non-Arabs would not assume that every Arab person they meet is a terrorist (one would hope). Instead, stereotypes offer opportunities for these suspicions to arise; following the last example, upon hearing of a terrorist attack, one would subconsciously assume the terrorist is Arab, regardless of their ethnicity. This highlights the danger of stereotypes: we are not usually aware of them yet they shape our thoughts, behaviors and actions. Knowing that stereotypes are formed by either the generalization of a personal experience or the influence of the media, it is safe to say that in the case of Arab marginalization the latter applies.

It is our responsibility and duty to deconstruct stereotypes propagated by Western popular media. We must reinforce a more accurate depiction of our countries, whether Arab or not, we need to redefine our own cultural identity.

References:

[1] https://historum.com/t/what-comes-to-your-mind-when-you-hear-the-word-arab.32499/

[2] Wu, Y. (2010). Model minority stereotypes of Asian American women in American media: perceptions and influences among women of diverse racial-ethnic backgrounds (Doctoral dissertation, Kansas State University).

[3] Schauer, F. (2006). Profiles, probabilities, and stereotypes. Harvard University Press. [4] Najm, N. A. (2019). Negative stereotypes of Arabs. SOCIAL WORK, 80(1).

[5] Sides, J., & Gross, K. (2013). Stereotypes of Muslims and Support for the War on Terror. The Journal of Politics, 75(3), 583-598.

[6]

https://www.cosmopolitan.com/uk/entertainment/a60007426/dune-2-middle-east-north-africa-muslim-infl uence-erasure/

[7] https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-20002148

[8] Yousaf, M., Sial, N., Munawar, A., & Shahzad, M. (2020). ENGLISH-STEREOTYPING OF ISLAM AND MUSLIMS IN HOLLYWOOD MOVIES: AN ANALYSIS OF REPRESENTATION. The Scholar Islamic Academic Research Journal, 6(1), 63-95.

A Debate:

Within Islam, past and present, there is a robust and ongoing debate over whether or not sentient beings, such as animals and humans, should be depicted in art. This avoidance of representing sentient beings, called aniconism, has numerous sources and justifications behind it with certain hadiths motivating a very strong aversion to such practices such as, for example, a concern over idolatry or an over-emphasis on the material. However, this reflects an incredible diversity and engagement within Islamic thought, culture and art and thereby also reveals the beautiful variety in which different Islamic societies have approached this sensitive subject and the different interpretations, and consequently, the various art forms and expressions that have sprung forth from it.

A Misconception:

Though it is absolutely true that some Islamic traditions and denominations explicitly forbid or steer away from depicting sentience within their respective artistic traditions, which is motivated by strongly held and genuine religious belief, there is an unfortunate claim made by some that there is no historical evidence or example of Islamic art depicting sentient beings. This misconception is particularly common amongst certain Western institutions or educational programmes who unfortunately often fail to fully grasp the nuances of this debate and the beliefs behind it. It furthermore is reinforced by our often limited exposure to the full breadth and depth of Islamic art and culture which tends to emphasize the most eye-catching or religiously significant monuments, where geometric and abstract patterns and art forms predominate, at the cost of other forms of Islamic artistic expression.

Unfortunately, this misconception has also been used to drape Islam in a sense of otherness, that its art is in a way not able to connect itself or enter into dialogue with other forms of art due to this difference. Furthermore, it is a misconception that is more enduring and prevalent than many people may believe. In my own history programme, I was told of a story of when my medieval history professor, Mohamed El-Merheb, had to debate and correct a student of theology at the RUG who insisted that there were no examples of sentient beings depicted in Islamic art. Thankfully my professor was there to correct the record and shared with the mistaken student countless examples of wonderful Islamic depictions of flowers, animals, plants and, yes, even humans.

However, my helpful professor cannot be everywhere at once to help correct and dispel this, but fortunately for us, we can use this platform and infographic to correct it on his behalf and on behalf of people who already know about how wrong this conception of Islamic art is. Although we are not here to provide answers to the complex debate of aniconism, what we are here to do is to reveal the incredible subtleties and complexities of Islamic art as it relates to its depiction of sentient beings. What we wish to do here is to showcase some examples of this that span a tremendous historical timespan and diversity and, thereby, dispel some of the more ugly aspects of a commonly held Western misconception and misunderstanding. Therefore, let us now embark on a fascinating adventure of Islamic art and culture that finally captures its full nuance, variety and wonder.

Examples:

- Baptistère de Saint Louis created by Mohammed ibn al-Zain (c.1320-40); particularly fascinating as it depicts a European Christian ruler, Louis IX (r. 1226-1270) alongside a retinue of riders and a medley of animals. Demonstrates the breadth of Islamic art in depicting other cultures and the variety of forms it engages with

- Medieval Persian manuscript depicting Muhammed leading Abraham, Moses and Jesus in prayer (date and maker unknown); especially noteworthy here is the depiction of Muhammed which showcases how different cultures that adopted Islam had varying attitudes in depicting the Prophet and also showcases how Islam saw itself as belonging to a wider Abrahamic world and culture through its depiction of other notable religious figures such as Moses

- Fresco from Qasr Amra (723-743), one of the best known examples of the desert castles constructed during the Umayyad Caliphate; notable here is the explicit depiction of nudity and the female form alongside the scene of a bathhouse which denotes pleasure and relaxation. Also interesting is its use of color and in its role as a private place for the use of the Umayyad caliphs

- Islamic painting depicting a hunting scene (c.1550); remarkable for its exquisite use of color and the sheer amount of movement and action depicted within the scene, especially with the huge amount of people depicted alongside the various animals and fauna. Also phenomenal for its representation of everyday life and activity

- Water Pitcher in the Shape of an Eagle (796-97); a great example of material culture which also demonstrates how even depictions of sentient beings were part of the everyday world of Islam as this water pitcher was likely used by a well-to-do Syrian or Iraqi family. The piece also includes the name of the craftsmen (Suleiman) and its date of manufacture which firmly proves that these forms of artistic expression were not done in secret but were part of an active Islamic economy and cultural world

Sources:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aniconism_in_Islam

https://artincontext.org/islamic-art/

https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/qasr-amra

The most sacred month of the year for 1.8 billion people around the world commences upon the sighting of the crescent moon, ushering in a period of spiritual reflection and fasting. Believers from around the world mark the month in which the first verses of the religion’s sacred text, the Quran, were revealed by fulfilling one of the five pillars of Islam. The month is a time to deepen one’s spiritual discipline by contemplating one's relationship with God, dedicating more time to prayer and the study of the Quran, and community building, all while observers carry on with regular activities, such as work, throughout the duration of their fast.

Not even water?

The main activity associated with Ramadan is fasting, which includes refraining from food, drink—yes, even water—as well as other forms of behaviour considered immoral between dawn and dusk. In addition to this, Muslims are encouraged to lessen negative habits such as swearing, complaining, and gossiping, with the ultimate goal of making observers practice mindfulness. While the iftar table varies across cuisines, the fast is usually broken with dates and a glass of water.

The deeper purpose of fasting is to achieve taqwa, which is about being aware of God’s presence, and therefore trying to live by the principles of faith at all times. It is seen as a reminder of the importance of keeping a deeper commitment to self-restraint. Apart from its central spiritual purpose, fasting is also meant to guide believers to empathise with the less fortunate and develop a duty to help the poor and needy, also known as zakat, which is another one of the pillars of the faith.

Lanterns, Drummers and Cannons

While the main customs of the upcoming Islamic lunar month, such as abstaining from food and drink from suhoor (the first meal before the break of dawn) to iftar (the meal eaten at sunset), are standard practice across borders, the rich traditions of Ramadan vary across regions.

As the break of dawn nears in Istanbul, drummers decked in Ottoman attire flood the streets to announce that it’s time for suhoor, a tradition dating back to the old times before the invention of alarm clocks. Somewhat similarly, Morocco tasks a Nafar—a town crier dressed in traditional attire—with roaming around the streets while blowing an instrument or singing melodious prayers to signal that it’s time to wake up for the first meal of the day. Local variations of these ‘human alarm clocks’ also endure in Lebanon, Yemen and Palestine.

Last but certainly not least, Iftar is announced with a bang—literally! In some countries, cannons are fired just in time for Maghrib prayer. Dating back to Egypt, the tradition of firing a cannon to mark the time for iftar steadily spread to the Levant, and is now a custom practiced throughout Gulf states such as the UAE and Qatar.

The streets of Egypt turn colorful and festive with light illuminated from lanterns at every corner, a tradition dating back to medieval times. In the modern day, the use of beautifully and intricately designed lanterns is widespread across the Muslim world for decorative purposes, adorning homes and public spaces, and is one of the main symbols associated with Ramadan.

In Indonesia, a purification ritual known as padusan is performed to cleanse the body and the spirit for fasting. Javanese Muslims plunge themselves in natural pools or springs in preparation for the sacred month.

The sighting of the New Moon, marking the arrival of Eid Al Fitr and commemorating the end of the holy month of Ramadan, is fused with festive cultural components and celebrated as Chaan Raat in South Asian countries such as Pakistan. As the month comes to an end, Eid Al Fitr celebrations are ripe with gift-giving, visiting loved ones, dressing up and giving to charity.

Ramadan Kareem!

Sources:

https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/ramadan-how-moon-sighting-sets-the-holy-month-in-motion-6633 4

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ramadan

https://www.vox.com/2017/5/25/11851766/what-is-ramadan-muslim-islam-about https://www.karamfoundation.org/ramadan-traditions-around-the-world/

https://www.gulf-times.com/article/678745/qatar/ramadan-cannon-sound-of-a-tradition-that-lives-on https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/ramadan

The Arab and Islamic world is responsible for both producing and preserving some of the wonders of the world. The detailed intricate designs of Islamic-era architecture have spread as far as Spain and Portugal, and the remains of Roman-era ruins are still prevalent across the Arab world. Here's a look at some of the most prominent landmarks of the Arab and Islamic world.

Iraq:

Malwiya Minaret:

Located in the ancient city of Samarra, this Minaret was constructed during the Abbasid Caliphate between the years 842-853 AD.

The unique minaret is characterised by its spiral design, with the name Malwiya being the Arabic word for ‘twisted’, and contains steps lining the outside of the spiral.

Abbasid Palace:

This Palace is the oldest building in the capital city of Baghdad, and was a creation under the Abbasid Caliphate in the 12th century.

It overlooks the Tigris river, and was originally built for the purpose of holding Islamic classes, and is characterised by the Abbasid style curved arches and ceilings.

Lebanon:

Baalbek Ruins:

Baalbek was nicknamed Heliopolis (the Sun City) by the Greeks as it was believed to be the area in which the sun was the strongest.

The Temple of Bacchus, whose construction began under the reign of Emperor Nero, draws inspiration from tributes to Greek Gods.

BeitEddine Palace:

Constructed under the rule of Emir Bechir Chehab II, this palace is a treasure of the 19th century, and became the residence of several leaders in Lebanon.

The Palace was inspired by both Arab and Italian Baroque styles of architecture.

Palestine:

Dome of the Rock:

Located in the vibrant city of Jerusalem, the Dome of the Rock is often held as a symbol of the city due to its unique golden dome.

It was constructed under the Umayyid Caliphate between 685-691 AD, and although it’s located in the Al-Aqsa complex, it's not actually a mosque, rather an attraction built around a rock located inside.

Hisham’s Palace:

Also built during the Umayyid Caliphate, this palace is one of the earliest Islamic works in Palestine, and is famous for its carefully crafted mosaic designs.

It was initially used as the winter residence of the Caliph, and then was transformed to be used for agricultural purposes by the Abbasid Caliphate.

Andalusia:

Alhambra:

The palace was named Alhambra due to its red tinted walls- In Arabic it was called ‘qal’at al hamra’ or the red castle, and was built between 1238-1358.

Located in the Andalucian city of Granada, the castle is a true testament to the genius and beauty of Islamic architecture, with Arabic script carved all around the walls of the castles.

Cordoba Mosque:

This mosque turned cathedral was first constructed by Abd Al Rahman III during the Islamic rule of Cordoba.

It is characterised by its continuous arches and open prayer hall filled with columns.

Morocco:

Hassan II Mosque:

Located in Casablanca, this mosque is one of the largest in Africa.

It was built in tribute to the King of Morocco who passed away in 1961, and drew inspiration from Moorish architecture as well as 20th century innovations.

Ait Ben Haddou:

This beautiful village in Morocco is distinguished by the continuous clay brick buildings and high fortress walls.

A prominent example of Moroccan Southern architecture, buildings such as ones in this village began construction as early as the 17th century.

Egypt:

Al-Azhar Mosque:

One of the most prominent mosques in Cairo, this structure was founded in 970 AD by the Fatimid Caliphate.

A school, or ‘Madrassa’ was established here in 988 AD which later transformed into a university, making it the second oldest educational institution in the world.

Pyramids of Giza:

Built in Giza in the North of Egypt, these pyramids are one of the great wonders of the world.

The pyramids were built as royal tombs for different ancient rulers, and are now open to tourists to visit, where they can see hieroglyphics on the walls as well as other artefacts.

Libya:

Ghadamis:

This Berber town is known as ‘The Pearl of the Desert’.

It is an urban desert settlement, filled with bright white buildings, and was a key economic and cultural location for the trans-Saharan trade route.

Leptis Magna:

This was regarded as one of the most beautiful Roman cities at the time of the empire, and currently lies on the coast of Libya southeast of Tripoli.

The ruins are characterised by the pale coloured stone, Roman theatre and recurring arches and columns.

Syria:

Umayyid Mosque:

As the name suggests, this Mosque was built under the Umayyad Caliphate, and is one of the largest and oldest mosques in the world, located in Damascus.

It possesses a grand courtyard, and is characterised by its columns as well as the embellished walls.

Damascus Courtyard Homes:

A focal point of Syrian history is the architecture of old Syrian homes, which were designed with an open courtyard in the centre of the home.

These courtyards characterised the Damascan style homes, especially the unique black and cream tiles which were used to create patterns. But it was also the arches and plentiful greenery which surrounded the space, and gave it life.

Jordan:

Petra:

Petra is one of the great wonders of the world, and was built by Nabataean Arabs near the Jordanian-Palestinian border.

The unique structure was built into mountains, and soon the city became vibrant and grew rich due to the trade of frankincense and spices.

Roman Theatre:

Located in the capital Amman, this structure is one of the best preserved Roman Theatres in the world.

Amman was previously called Philadelphia by the Romans, and it was their Emperor Pius who ordered the building of this monument.

Sources:

https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20201003-discover-the-malwiya-minaret-of-samarra-iraq/

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ishtar-Gate

https://www.everycastle.com/Abbasid-Palace.html

https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5880/

https://www.lonelyplanet.com/lebanon/baalbek-1342228/attractions/temple-of-bacchus/a/poi-sig/1584409/1342228

https://www.visit-lebanon.org/leisure/beiteddine

https://www.everycastle.com/Beiteddine-Palace.html

https://www.bu.edu/mzank/Michael_Zank/Jerusalem/domeoftherock.html#:~:text=The%20Dome%20of%20the%20Rock%20was%20built%20between%20AD%20685,mashhad%2C%20a%20shrine%20for%20pilgrims.

https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6546/

https://www.alhambradegranada.org/en/info/historicalintroduction.asp

https://smarthistory.org/the-great-mosque-of-cordoba/

https://mosqpedia.org/en/mosque/329

https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/444/

https://www.lonelyplanet.com/egypt/cairo/attractions/al-azhar-mosque/a/poi-sig/406208/355225

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pyramids-of-Giza

https://www.britannica.com/place/Leptis-Magna

https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/362/

https://artsandculture.google.com/story/the-umayyad-mosque-of-damascus-rmn-grand-palais/owUhDrQL2PCxIQ?hl=en

https://www.baytalfann.com/post/the-art-and-heritage-of-courtyard-homes-in-syria

https://www.visitpetra.jo/Pages/viewpage.aspx?pageID=124

https://www.historyhit.com/locations/amman-roman-theatre/

The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, a land basked in sunshine, holds a promising key to addressing its energy challenges through the harnessing of solar power. While the region has long been synonymous with oil and gas, the abundant resource of the sun presents an unparalleled opportunity for sustainable development. This shift towards renewable energy is not just environmentally crucial but economically strategic, offering a pathway to diversify energy sources, stimulate technological innovation, and reduce carbon emissions.

In Egypt, the monumental Aswan High Dam, harnessing the waters of the Nile at Lake Nasser, stands as a testament to the country’s early endeavors in renewable energy. Initiated in the 1960s under President Gamal Abdel Nasser, this colossal infrastructure project was not only aimed at controlling the annual flood of the Nile but also at generating hydroelectric power, marking Egypt’s foray into renewable energy sources. Today, the Aswan High Dam contributes significantly to Egypt’s electricity needs, providing both a reliable source of renewable energy and a means of irrigation to boost agricultural productivity. Its creation, while controversial for its environmental and social impacts, highlighted Egypt’s pioneering role in the region’s renewable energy landscape, showcasing the potential of natural resources in contributing to sustainable energy solutions. [2]

Morocco’s commitment to renewable energy is exemplified by its ambitious solar energy projects, marking it as a frontrunner in the MENA region’s green energy transition. The kingdom’s strategic investment in the Noor Ouarzazate Solar Complex, the world’s largest concentrated solar power plant, reflects its vision to harness the abundant sunlight that bathes the country. This sprawling solar facility is part of Morocco’s broader plan to source 52% of its energy from renewable sources by 2030, a testament to its dedication to sustainability and environmental stewardship. Beyond Ouarzazate, Morocco’s renewable energy strategy encompasses wind and hydroelectric power, with projects like the Tarfaya Wind Farm and the expansion of hydropower capacities. These initiatives not only contribute to reducing carbon emissions but also play a crucial role in meeting the growing energy demands of the country, promoting rural electrification, and fostering economic development through the creation of green jobs and technology transfer. [3]

In the Gaza Strip, a narrow enclave facing chronic electricity shortages, solar energy has emerged as a beacon of hope. Amidst ongoing blockades and limited access to conventional energy sources, the installation of solar panels across rooftops, schools, hospitals, and agricultural farms represents a vital shift towards sustainability and resilience. Solar cells in Gaza are not just about generating electricity; they’re a lifeline, reducing the reliance on erratic power supplies and enabling essential services to operate uninterrupted. Despite the challenges, including limited access to materials and funding, the adoption of solar energy in Gaza underscores the enclave’s determination to harness renewable resources. This initiative not only alleviates some of the hardships faced by its residents but also sets a precedent for renewable energy solutions in conflict-affected areas, demonstrating how innovation and sustainability can thrive even in the most challenging environments. Unfortunately, these have been mostly destroyed since the IDF have leveled most of the buildings in the recent ethinic cleansing campaign since october 7.[7]

Jordan is not far behind, with substantial investments in solar and wind projects, leveraging the region’s geographic advantages for renewable energy production [4]. Saudi Arabia and Qatar are significantly advancing their solar energy plans as part of broader initiatives to diversify their energy sources and reduce carbon emissions. Saudi Arabia, with its Vision 2030, aims to generate 50% of its electricity from renewable sources by 2030. The kingdom has embarked on major solar projects, such as the Al Shuaibah PV 1 and Al Shuaibah PV 2 in Makkah province, with a combined capacity of over 2.6 gigawatts, sufficient to power approximately 450,000 households [5].

Additionally, Saudi Arabia’s National Renewable Energy Programme is aggressively adding capacity, with aims to install 27.5 GW of solar power by 2030. The government is leveraging competitive auctions, bilateral utility contracts, corporate power purchase agreements (PPAs), and state-owned projects to meet its ambitious renewable energy targets. This includes plans for significant projects like the 2.6 GW Al Shuaibah solar plant, backed by the National Development Fund, showcasing the nation’s stride towards its net-zero target by 2060 [6]. Qatar is known for its significant investment in the solar sector as part of its national strategy to diversify energy sources and reduce dependence on hydrocarbons.

Qatar’s National Vision 2030 places a strong emphasis on sustainable development, including the expansion of renewable energy sources to ensure environmental and economic sustainability [1].

The renewable energy initiatives across the MENA region signify a transformative era towards sustainability and energy independence. From Egypt’s integration of hydropower and renewables around the Aswan High Dam, Morocco’s pioneering solar projects like the Noor Ouarzazate Solar Complex, to the resilience of Gaza harnessing solar cells amidst adversity, these efforts reflect a collective stride towards mitigating climate change while addressing energy security. The future holds the promise of a fully renewable-powered MENA region, where technological advancements and international cooperation could further enhance energy efficiency, storage capabilities, and cross-border energy trade. This vision not only aligns with global sustainability goals but also heralds a new chapter of economic prosperity, environmental stewardship, and social equity, as renewable energy becomes the cornerstone of the region’s development.

References

[1] Al kharsaah: Pioneering solar power plant in qatar. TotalEnergies, 2023.

[2] Aswan high dam, 2023.

[3] The future of renewable energy in the middle east and north africa, 2023

[4] Jordan Times. 16 renewable energy projects underway in jordan — jreeef. Aug 2023.

[5] H. Liepmannsohn. Saudi arabia’s solar market. PV Magazine International, Mar 2023.

[6] A. Nagraj. Two major saudi solar projects reach financial close with investment of $2.4bn. The National, Aug 2023.

[7] E. Tegler. Electricity trickles from vulnerable solar panels on gaza roofs. Forbes, Nov 2023.

Arab migration to South America is deeply entrenched in historical factors that shaped the demographic landscape of the region. The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a significant influx of Arab immigrants to South American countries. Economic opportunities in nations like Brazil, Argentina, and Colombia served as major pull factors, enticing many Arabs to seek a new life in these countries. Simultaneously, political instability in the Middle East acted as a significant push factor, compelling individuals and families to embark on long and arduous journeys to South America in search of stability and a better future. This intertwining of push and pull factors has left an indelible mark on the Arab migration to South America.

​

Historical Roots of Arab Migration to South America

The historical roots of Arab migration to South America stem from a combination of push and pull factors. Economic opportunities in South American countries, particularly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, played a pivotal role in attracting Arab migrants. The promise of agricultural and industrial prospects, coupled with the allure of owning land, drew many from the Arab world to the fertile soils of South America. Simultaneously, political instability in the Middle East, including the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and subsequent geopolitical turmoil, acted as a significant push factor, compelling Arab families to seek stability and prosperity across the Atlantic. This interplay of push and pull factors influenced and shaped the early waves of Arab migration to South America, leaving a lasting impact on both the Arab and South American cultures.

The Far-Reaching Influence of Arab Migration in South America

The impact and influence of Arab migration on South America have been profound, as evident in the integration and preservation of Arab cultural identity. Arab migrants have played a pivotal role in shaping the economic and social landscape of South American countries. Their contributions are ubiquitous, spanning various sectors such as commerce, agriculture, and industry. Moreover, Arab communities have influenced local culture, culinary traditions, and societal practices, enriching the multicultural of South America. The enduring legacy of Arab migration is palpable in the vibrant and dynamic fusion of traditions and customs that have become a part of the fabric of South American societies.

The Historical Roots and Enduring Legacy of Arab Migration to South America

In summary, the historical roots of Arab migration to South America can be traced back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries when economic opportunities in South American countries and political instability in the Middle East acted as push and pull factors influencing the migration. This migration has left a profound and enduring legacy in South America. Through cultural integration and the preservation of Arab identity, Arab migrants have had a substantial impact on the social and economic landscape of South American countries. Their influence can be seen in local culture, food, and traditions, reflecting the lasting legacy of Arab migration in South America.

References:

https://aljadid.com/content/arabs-making-their-mark-latin-america-generations-immigrants-colombia-venezuela-and-mexico

https://guides.lib.utexas.edu/ArabsinLatAm

https://www.iemed.org/publication/the-arab-world-and-latin-americalong-standing-migration-an-expanding-south-south-partnership/

https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199766581/obo-9780199766581-0193.xml

https://www.arabnews.com/node/2076336/middle-east

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Arab_League_South_America_Locator.png

In the pursuit of sustainable development, the convoluted connection between food, water, and energy stands as the backbone. It is widely known that the food-water-energy nexus is fundamental not only for the security of human lives but also for the stability of a country’s economy.

​

    The intricacy of these connections can be exemplified by the following detrimental effects when there is a scarcity or lack of just one of these factors; amidst various environmental challenges discussed at COP28, the focal point was the alarming scarcity of water in the MENA region. To put this in perspective, Iraq loses 8–12 million cubic meters of surface water annually; Libya loses over 25,000 lives due to water dam breaks as a result of poor water infrastructure; Egypt struggles due to high population pressure; Jordan loses 60 litres of water per day, resulting in being the second most scarce water source in the world after Somalia. Therefore, the scarcity of water leads to inevitable insecurities in energy and, hence, a lack of food production. Shockingly, according to UNICEF, almost 90% of the children in the MENA Region live in areas of high water stress. As we can see, the security of water, food, and energy is not merely a prerequisite for our survival but a decisive factor when it comes to defining the quality of life. 

​

   Based on the World Bank’s Report in the MENA Region, it is predicted that by 2050, many countries in the region will run out of groundwater, meaning that production is meant to drop by 60% in some countries. However, despite this, a lot of countries in the MENA region have the opportunity to transition to their dependence on renewable energy sources while simultaneously reducing greenhouse gas emissions. 

​

   Through active international cooperation and innovative technologies, we can drive the transition from scarcity to security. For example, the ongoing collaboration between the Netherlands, Lebanon, and Oman has a specific focus on enhancing water management. More specifically, the establishment of the Oman Netherlands Task Force on Water in 2017 has allowed for constant developments towards the nexus. This relationship is mutually beneficial in nature; some may label it an exchange of reciprocal assistance. Through assistance, the Ministry of Agriculture of Oman is seeking to improve water use efficiency through subsurface irrigation. Thus, active cooperation and experienced knowledge play a vital role in water management, especially in the MENA region.

​

   Innovative technology can be used as a means to tackle the current water issues; this has been done in Saudi Arabia. The active efforts from the government range from the ‘Qatrah’ (droplet) project to the current ‘the Line Project’. The former intends to reduce daily per capita consumption to 150 litres per capita by 2030, with an emphasis on the agricultural sector. Whereas the latter is a 170 km long city line fully, in other words, 100% powered by renewable energy, utilizing solar and wind energy to fulfill its electricity, water, and food demands. The Line addressed water scarcity through an innovative design known as water-efficient design. Firstly, it was designed to balance sunlight, shade, and ventilation, resulting in an ideal climate all year round, hence minimizing water usage for temperature control. In addition, green open spaces will replace the constant need for artificial cooling. Moreover, the wastewater will be treated for industrial processes, reducing the strain on freshwater resources as well as installing small desalination plants for localized water sources. The project is implementing a holistic approach combining sustainable design, renewable energy, and water management to tackle the environmental challenges it faces. These projects allow Saudi Arabia to move away from reliance on fossil fuels to the utilization of renewable energy resources instead. 

   The projects adopted by Saudi Arabia are a strong indicator of the possibility of overcoming the environmental crisis the MENA region is facing today. However, there are some countries in the MENA Region that don’t progress in terms of using renewable energy sources or tackling the water crisis, this is  due to political instability that does not allow for effective government strategies. Hence, each country faces a water crisis for a different reason, whether it's due to high population growth or poor management of water systems. With technological advancements, correct funding from the government, and diplomatic and international relations, countries may curb the devastating and harmful impacts of these challenges. 

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Sources: 

• https://borgenproject.org/water-crisis-in-saudi-arabia/

• https://www.globalbusinessoutlook.com/energy/mena-watch-region-faces-dire-water-scarcity/#:~:text=As%20per%20the%20latest%20stats,are%20right%20now%20in%20MENA.

• https://www.undp.org/iraq/stories/cop28-water-scarcity-crisis-arab-region-examples-and-potential-solutions#:~:text=The%20country%20is%20experiencing%20a,of%20their%20water%20since%201973.

• https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/16/disaster-of-epic-proportions-libya-prosecutor-probes-deadly-dam-collapse

• https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/security-implications-growing-water-scarcity-egypt

• https://www.unicef.org/jordan/water-sanitation-and-hygiene

• https://blogs.worldbank.org/arabvoices/water-food-and-energy-arab-world-collective-challenge

• https://www.netherlandswaterpartnership.com/news/continued-bilateral-water-cooperation-between-oman-and-netherlands

•  

• Saudi Arabia launches program for a drastic reduction in water use | WaterWorld

• Saudi Arabia reveals details of The Line project in Neom – Business Traveller

• Neom: New satellite images show progress of Saudi Arabia's 'The Line' | Middle East Eye

• https://www.neom.com/en-us/regions/theline

• https://www.ecomena.org/environmental-outlook-arab/

People often think they know what it's like to live as a Muslim woman in the MENA region; forced to wear the hijab, not permitted to work, and receiving the worst of the worst treatment from whatever man her parents set her up with. The issue of women’s rights in the region is too nuanced to be narrowed down to two isms - Feminism and Islamism. The region is also too diverse to be boiled down to merely Islamic fiqh (jurisprudence)/tradition when there is definitely more to it than that. However, due to religion being the majority, and the socio-political state of the region being focused on Islamic teachings, we find ourselves in this situation; where the leaders, the politicians, and the non-government groups dictate rules which (when actually researched) have no root in the religion on Islam.

Before beginning the discussion, a few things must be made clear. The first is that the discussion on Islamic Feminism does not involve the Sharia, or even the ‘Islam’, that the media advertises for us. Political Islamism, ‘Islamists’, ‘Jihadists’ and all these terms which are used when discussing the Muslim community in the MENA region refer to a particular and extreme group of people who seek to “spread the word of Islam” and “bring back the rule of Sharia.” It is incorrect and, quite frankly, unrighteous to associate all Muslims with political actors who purposefully misinterpret the Quran and Sharia to reap the benefits of such interpretation for their desires. Thus, the implementation of ‘Islamic teachings’ by individuals in positions of power should not act as a representation of what the religion, or the MENA region itself, stands for. Secondly, just like all religions and belief systems, many Islamic traditions stem from human understanding of what is written - it is subject to misinterpretation and change.

With the rise of feminism and feminist perspectives, (some) Arab women in the MENA region outright rejected the movement. Put yourself in the position of a woman in the region, who is still recovering from the effects of Western Imperialism and colonialism, would you give another ism any thought? In their minds, feminism is a thing of the West, something that does not belong in our society. “We do not need any more of their ideas” or “We’ve had enough” were probably the two main thoughts with the rise of feminist movements. Of course, there were many Arab feminists at the time, fighting for their rights and equal footing in society. And while viewing feminism as a completely Western ideology is inaccurate, there are many factors about this to consider which make this discussion much more complicated than this.

For starters, women’s rights in Islam (again the religion, not to be confused with political actors), are sufficient for women when discussed in consideration of societal norms in the region. The Muslim Arab woman can be satisfied with her life as a hijabi woman, as a mother (which we know is a job in and of itself), as a wife, as a friend, and so much more; and vice versa. However, Feminists in other parts of the world may find this to be anti-feminist. They are unsatisfied with our way of living when the individuals themselves who are living in such a life are perfectly okay with it. Over time, this causes a drift in the Feminist movement. It morphs into a plight which is not inclusive of every woman, simply because some women choose modesty, or choose to be a stay-at-home mom. This illustration doesn’t even begin to describe all the different women in the region. On the other end of the spectrum are the individuals (men) in the region who maintain positions of power and abuse women’s rights under Islam - the infamous example here being forcing the hijab on women in Iran. As previously mentioned, the media has used and abused this example as a representation of the treatment of women in the region. Due to situations like this, it becomes hard for Muslim women to argue for the hijab, or that they had freedom in their choice to wear it - when as a form of modesty, it’s empowering and inherently feminist.

It’s impossible to highlight all the different aspects of Islam which push for women’s rights in this article. What I will tell you is that MENA region women do not need to be saved by the West, and their framework of what they assume feminism should look like. I say this carefully of course, because there are a lot of women being oppressed in the region, but even if they do need help freeing themselves from patriarchal norms, a solution will not be found in the arguments posed by individuals who are not from the region itself. It is important to approach such issues carefully. Women who are willingly living financially dependent on their husbands are often happy to do so, and the world has progressed so much so that women have the choice of whether they want to do that or not. Dressing modestly is a choice (in most cases), and should not be taken as an offensive signal to diminishing feminist movements. Inheriting less than men in Islamic family law is not a way to oppress women - after getting the full picture of a Muslim Middle Eastern woman’s lifestyle there would be a greater understanding of this.

One cannot neglect the negative effects of political movements, governmental and non-governmental ones. Movements for the liberation of women from androcentric standards have taken, and are still taking place. Nevertheless, maintaining the Islam versus Feminism dichotomy is largely unhelpful, whether it be when the definitions of either term are broad or narrow. Especially since a true inspection of both terms leads to the conclusion that Islam, or any other belief system for that matter, is not the problem, but rather male leaders and their androcentric policies. Thus, discussions on this ought to be conducted with more inclusivity, considering that both ends of the spectrum, being an outright rejection of feminism and misrepresentation and dismissal of Islam, are damaging to women in the region.

Sources

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_feminism#Criticism

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3993823.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3A48c38ba37df174c7a3bc8eca8c61ee65&ab_segments=&origin=&initiator=&acceptTC=1

https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/20.500.12413/7559/IDSB_42_1_10.1111-j.1759-5436.2011.00202.x.pdf?sequence=1

Introduction:

A Syrian in Romania, an Algerian in East Germany, an Iraqi in the USSR and an Egyptian in Poland. Though this might sound like the start of the weirdest joke you’ve ever heard, it instead describes a phenomenon and sight that was common throughout the Eastern Bloc. Although often forgotten nowadays, the outbreak of the Cold War led to a struggle between the USA and the USSR to win over the hearts and minds of peoples who were outside the two blocs. While this struggle over influence was often expressed and maintained through military assistance, economic aid packages and political wheeling and dealing, an often neglected and unexplored aspect of this struggle over hearts and minds was in the realm of education and culture.

This was all the more pronounced in the case of the MENA region. Emerging from decolonization and underdevelopment the region in the aftermath of WWII was especially eager to expand its international connections and provide educational opportunities to its citizens. Furthermore, due to its logical distrust of Western interests and the impact of colonial trauma, the MENA region was particularly receptive to Soviet assistance and its undertones of combatting neo-colonial influence and ensuring national development. This all meant that, despite broadly remaining unaligned and attempting to play the two power blocs off one another, the region as a whole saw a process of countless of its students studying and receiving higher education in the Eastern Bloc.

In revealing and exploring these experiences what we uncover is a fascinating connection between the MENA region and Eastern and Central Europe, which is astounding both in its scale and breadth and in the depth of the impacts and legacies it has left behind. Studying abroad in the ideological environment of the Eastern Bloc not only shaped how MENA students saw themselves and the world but also provided many of them the tools, knowledge and skills to gain their respective countries’ independence and formulate a sense of identity in a highly tumultuous world order. That is why in this article we will examine not only how MENA students were selected to study in the Eastern Bloc but also what their experiences of this were, including notable cases, and the impacts it had on the region both in the short and long term.

The Politics of International Education:

As one might imagine, like today, students who wanted to study abroad were expected to meet certain requirements. However, unlike most of our modern experiences, higher educational criteria for foreign students during the Cold War were noticeably different. In the case of the Eastern Bloc, selection was guided by the concept of ‘social transformation’. Stemming from both ideological and geopolitical concerns, the USSR saw higher education as an opportunity to cultivate and essentially create a socialist intelligentsia and leadership which, once they had returned to their home countries, could serve as the vanguard for revolution and social change. The goal of international education programs therefore was to foment social transformation and empower non-dominant social classes in states where the Eastern Bloc had interests and to also validate its ideology.

As a result, international education programs provided by the Eastern Bloc focused significantly on both a student’s class background, as might be expected, and the extent of their support for communist ideology or engagement in anti-imperialist struggles. The inherent desire of the USSR to develop a new technical elite also meant that international education programs in the Eastern Bloc primarily focused on applied and natural sciences. These factors, instead of discouraging MENA participation, in some ways encouraged it. Not only was the MENA of the 50’s and 60’s home to a variety of left-wing movements, thereby providing a promising recruitment pool of socialist minded students, but the focus of Soviet international education on training lower class students in the sciences was extremely enticing both for the governments of a region that desperately needed technical know-how and for peasant and working class students who wanted to move up in the world.

These selection pressures were also then backed up by deliberate Soviet attention towards cultivating educational relations with MENA states through official agreements and intergovernmental conferences. This in some ways arguably tempered the ideological dimension and made educating valuable specialists in a communist environment more palatable to some states such as Egypt. Throughout 1957 exhibits on the subject of studying abroad in the USSR were organized by Soviet cultural centers in Egypt, Syria and Lebanon that drew tens of thousands of visitors. Not only that but technical and cultural cooperation agreements were also signed between the USSR and countries such as Syria (1956), Egypt (1957) and Iraq (1959). This also occurred with other Eastern Bloc countries such as the agreement reached by Bulgaria and Syria (1962) and fascinatingly an agreement made between Egypt and East Berlin in 1965, four years before Egypt even diplomatically recognized East Germany as a country.

Some of this diplomatic courting was noticeably more direct. Probably the most on the nose example was when Bulgaria renamed its institute for foreign students at the University of Sofia to the Institute Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1970 after his passing. Other, more subtle examples, feature the establishment by countries such as the USSR and Czechoslovakia of educational institutions specifically geared to educating students from the Third World such as the Patrice Lumumba Peoples’ Friendship University, which still operates in Russia today, and the University of the 17th of November in Prague. Another fascinating example is the role several Eastern Bloc states played in helping finance and build schools and educational institutions throughout the MENA region such as the Technical Institute of Helwan (Egypt), Technical School of Tabriz (Iran), Training Centre for the National Railways (Iraq) or even the Institute of Engineering (Tunis).

As a result of all of this, the extent of MENA participation in Soviet international education programs was rather staggering. From the period from 1966 to 1967 around 6,761 students from selected Arab countries studied in the Eastern Bloc (not including the whole MENA region) with most students from lower to middle class backgrounds studying in order to acquire a PhD after a 3 year program. Overall, these students not only lacked the need to pay tuition fees but were also given assistance from both the USSR and their home country while additionally experiencing lower living costs than what they would have faced by studying in the West. In terms of the fields studied data from 1963 suggests that 40.6% of MENA students pursued fields such as engineering, transport, industry and communications technologies; 25.4% in medicine and medical specializations; 21.7% in economics or law; 6.2% in agronomy and the remaining 6.1% in the humanities and the arts.

Overall, as the data and the historiography suggest, significant numbers of MENA students went on to study throughout the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War. Conversely, the USSR and its satellite states were deeply interested in fostering educational participation from the MENA region. However, despite all this evidence, the true transformative power of Soviet international education, particularly as desired by the USSR itself, was not always realized. The USSR sought to remake the world through education, to bolster anti-imperialist struggles and expand its orbit, and it would only be in a few specific cases where this was successfully accomplished, if only briefly. We now turn to one of those examples.

​A Case Study:

Soviet Education and Algerian Independence & Cinema A defining example of the ability and success of Soviet international education programs at shaping anti-imperialist struggles and expand socialist beliefs throughout the world is the case of Algeria. In some ways the situation in Algeria was conducive to the Soviet concept of ‘social transformation’. The active waging of an independence war by the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) meant that there was an acute need for support, both in waging the war, and in developing expertise that would help the country rebuild and develop after it. Furthermore, the broad anti-imperialist context of the struggle fitted nicely with communist ideology and led to an eagerness by Eastern Bloc governments to participate and assist in the country’s struggle for liberation.

Consequently, a tight working relationship emerged between Algerian revolutionary organizations and cultural and education institutions in the Eastern Bloc both at home and abroad. From the Algerian side the effort was spearheaded by organizations such as the FLN and the Union Générale des Etudiants Musulmans Algériens (UGEMA) whose members feature prominently in the Algerian students selected to study abroad in the Eastern Bloc. On the socialist side the coordination and provision of assistance and educational opportunities to Algerian students was led by the International Union of Students, based in Prague, and bodies such as the Soviet Afro-Asian Solidarity Committee (including its East German variant) and specific institutions such as the Patrice Lumumba Peoples’ Friendship University which saw 42 Algerian students from UGEMA admitted to it amongst a class of 253 students from the whole of the MENA region (c.17%).

The most immediate and important form of assistance rendered by the Eastern Bloc during the Algerian War of Independence was as a safe-haven for Algerian refugees (with East Germany alone hosting 200) and by educating Algerian students in medical and technical expertise. These experiences shaped students as much as they shaped the societies they found refuge in. One prominent example is in the case of Mustapha Negadi who was granted a scholarship through the IUS and studied at the prestigious Sechenov Medical Institute in Moscow from which he would help treat wounded Algerian fighters and, once independence was achieved, would become a prominent psychiatrist and author of the book “An Algerian-Soviet Novel” which reflects the impact studying in the USSR had for him and others like him.

Another prominent example is Mohamed Lakhdar Benhassine, an economist, who attended Moscow State University from 1956 to 1962 and who then pursued his postgraduate studies at the Higher School of Economics in East Berlin, graduating in 1967. After his studies Benhassine went on to become a prominent Marxist economist and academic in Algeria, leading the outlawed Socialist Vanguard Party, and after his passing in 2014 being dubbed by one newspaper as “the man who saved the honor of the Algerian University”. The example of Benhassine also reflects the focus and emphasis that Soviet international education programs placed on fields such as the sciences and economics, and which demonstrates how educational assistance was geared towards helping a country’s development and also in cultivating a socialist-minded elite that could lead the country after independence.

However, this educational assistance was not only successful in providing medical treatment to Algerian independence fighters or fielding a newly independent state with economic advisors but also, fascinatingly, helped shape the country’s cultural horizons. Two notable examples are Mohand Ali Yahia and Boubaker Adjali who studied at the East Berlin Film School and the Prague Film and TV School respectively and which often prominently featured documentaries or films covering various anti-colonial struggles such as, of course, the Algerian War of Independence but also movements such as those fighting Portuguese colonialism. The most triumphant example of this was to be found in the work of Mohammed Lakhdar-Hamina who in 1966 won the prestigious Best First Work award at the Cannes Film Festival for his film ‘The Winds of the Aures’ and who is today widely regarded as one of the founding fathers of Algerian cinema.

What this meant, crucially, for Algeria, is that through Soviet international education programs the country was able to begin to conceptualize and define itself in the international order. The education opportunities provided by the Eastern Bloc provided essential cultural tools and means through which Algerian film-makers, writers and artists could criticize and challenge Western cultural dominance and also, crucially, give these artists certain terms, languages and concepts through which they could define themselves. The very fact that an Eastern Bloc educated Algerian film-maker, such as Lakhdar-Hamina, could win one of the most prestigious awards in Western cinema for a work that saliently and unreservedly depicted the Algerian War of Independence, during a festival held in France no less, was a moment of triumph, pride and identity for a country that in 1966 was only 4 years old and still grappling with its position, culture and sense of nationhood within the wider world.

A Fallen Wall and a Bygone Connection:

Although it has now been 35 years and counting since the fall of the Berlin Wall and the end of the Cold War, the realities that dominated the period and shaped the minds of so many MENA students still undeniably remain. For a MENA student studying in the Eastern Bloc not only meant socio-economic advancement and the chance to see new parts of the world but also often meant gaining a new sense of identity and pride. For countries such as Algeria the prospect of Soviet international education programs meant everything from ensuring national development to elevating its culture and thereby challenging Western cultural dominance. It helped foster a connection which provided educational opportunities and resources at a crucial point in the MENA’s history where it distinctively needed them. Thereby leaving a profound and lasting connection.

The profoundness of the connection is also reflected in the notable MENA populations that still exist in some Eastern European countries today. A fascinating example of this is Romania which today has a population of around 10,000 with links to the MENA region and which has sought, as recently as March of 2023, to acquire official status as a minority within the country. This also reflected in the sheer numbers of MENA students that studied there during the Cold War with one unsourceable claim stating, though rather dubiously, that around 500,000 of them studied in Romania during the 1980’s*** . One may also highlight other examples of MENA prominence such as the contributions made by them in countries Bulgaria, Yugoslavia or in East Germany which all today still have occasional traces and echoes of the connection that used to exist between them.

However, in some ways the impact of Soviet international education has been largely forgotten and minimized. To some extent this is due to the fact that the Eastern Bloc lost the Cold War. With many of its innovations, realities and particularities banished to historical oblivion or neglect. Another reason was the lack of success of actual revolutions shaped by Soviet ideology and objectives. As reports by the USSR itself indicate, many international students did not end up, as hoped for, assume dominant positions or spearhead social change in their respective countries. This was partly due to the fact that empowering lower classes to overthrow the dominant ruling groups was more challenging and costly than simply educating and courting current ruling classes, as American international education programs tended to do.

​

Whatever the reasons for its overall failure, the history of Soviet international education programs remains nevertheless relevant. Not only are there still countless MENA students who studied in the Eastern Bloc that are alive today, whose experiences unfortunately have been little listened to, but their experiences also reflect a wider narrative and story of the MENA region consistently seeking to expand its connections with the rest of the world. It shows how through international cooperation and exchange the region was able to identify, rebuild and re-imagine itself after the cataclysmic and traumatic events of the 20th century and particularly the challenges posed by decolonization. It also reflects and makes undeniable a connection between the MENA region and Eastern Europe which many people might like to ignore or dismiss as insignificant, which the roughly 6,761 MENA students who studied in the Eastern Bloc in 1966-67 might disagree with.

​

*** Official statistics from the Soviet and Russian ministry of education indicate that around 500,000 students, worldwide, participated in Soviet international education programs during the entirety of the Cold War. Therefore, the claim that an equal number of MENA students studied in just Romania in just the 1980’s seems impossible though if anything illustrative of a perception of the influence of such students for the country’s history.

​Sources:

Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University of Russia - Wikipedia

Soviet Afro-Asian Solidarity Committee - Wikipedia

 Arabs in Romania - Wikipedia

 Ali Yahia Abdennour - Wikipedia

 Mohammed Lakhdar-Hamina - Wikipedia

 After Independence, Algeria Launched an Experiment in Self-Managing Socialism

 The Socialist Countries, North Africa and the Middle East in the Cold War: The Educational Connection | Contemporary European History | Cambridge Core

International Education during the Cold War: Soviet Social Transformation and American Social Reproduction | Comparative Education Review: Vol 52, No 2

Renowned for being the longest river in the world, its flow covering a distance of 6,600 kilometers before emptying into the Mediterranean Sea, the Nile River bears a central role in Egyptian History. Trademarked by the people as ‘Egypt’s bloodline’, it has been a constant force, nurturing life and civilizations nestled along its banks. Gifted with a nutrient rich fertile soil, it’s strategic location and annual flooding (although a double-edged sword), the river has shaped Egypt’s destiny. Uniquely situated in the heart of Egypt, it was bound to become part of the nation’s identity.

​

With roots tracing back to the Pharaohs the annual flooding of the Nile formulated a natural irrigation system for the Egyptians; ultimately producing nutrient rich silt. This caused a chain reaction in the agricultural system: a pillar of prosperity in ancient Egypt. The nutrient rich soil gave life to prospect of cultivating vast staple crops such as wheat, barley and flax, evolving into the widely loved Egyptian Bread recurring all throughout Egyptian cuisine. In addition to this, the Nile River was also an ideal growing location for the papyrus plant which is known for its use in making paper. Such an important discovery gave way to Egypt to participate in a whole new market segment other than just agriculture, as papyrus was eventually also used to make cloth, boxes and ropes. As such the Egyptian population was sustained for millennia yet more importantly the plethora of products reaped from the Nile opened the gateway to trade and commerce beyond Egypt’s territory.

​

Because of this, the Nile soon also became an economic artery; not only did it produce agricultural goods to be exported, but also became a route for transport. Even today, some residents of El Qahira have started to use water taxis, speed boats, or ferries to avoid crowded streets. Not just that, the navigable canals truly are the most significant to the transport of heavy goods. To put it into perspective, there are around 2,000 miles of navigable waterways in total, and about half of this is on the Nile which is navigable throughout its length. The natural currents gave way for easy transport and soon, the development of sophisticated economic system in ancient Egypt was well underway.

​

The Nile slowly found its way into the roots of Egypt’s cultural identity; many superstitions and legends were formulated on the Nile. Ancient Egyptians revered the Nile to be a genuine force capable of giving life, thus the Nile was associated with various deities and ended up having a more religious status too as it was incorporated into religious rituals. Many festivals would celebrate its annual inundation, known as “Akhet”, which was seen as the arrival of the goddess Mehet-Weret (“The Great Flood”) and deity Hapi who brought fertility to the land. At a time, the Nile was an ultimate symbol of the circle of life and the interconnectedness between the river and the people; it held a great spiritual meaning as it was seen as a passageway between life and death which came into existence when Osiris, another local deity, was believed to be the king of the Underworld residing in the Nile. Nile thus heavily supported and influenced the self determination of Ancient Egyptians and formulated their initial religious beliefs.

​

Eventually, the river also became a site for flourishing urban development. Cities like Memphis and Thebes were built along its banks and prospered, becoming centers of administration, culture and learning. Memphis grew to be a territory that held a lot of political power, largely due to its religious influence. Coronation ceremonies and jubilees for the Kings would be held at Memphis. In fact, Memphis was even seen as a second capital of Egypt. Thebes was previously known as the royal capital of Egypt, but even after the Memphis gained more political power (royal residences were moved to Memphis), Thebes was still greatly honored by Kings and was the site to many temples. Present day Thebes area (constituting of Luxor, the Valley of the Kings, and Karnak) was designated to be a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979. The Nile practically nurtured these cities, its assets being essential for the sustenance and growth of these centers which had such significance that it was transmitted beyond time and history.

​

One of the wonders of the Nile is that the natural deserts and cataracts that nestle around fulfilled a strategic purpose of defense. These formations made invading Egypt’s territory an incredibly ambitious task. This gave Ancient Egyptians a strategic advantage; they did not have to actively invest more into a defense system, rather they were able to use nature itself as a weapon against external threats. At the time, such protection was also essential as colonial powers realized Nile was a vital asset. The British Empire was concerned with wanting to control Nile’s water resources and wanted to secure influence over its surrounding areas as well, and the French Empire was concerned with wanting its geographical advantage. The Nile became a shield, a safe harbor, preserving the culture and civilization of Egypt, and also found itself being a hot topic in the geopolitical landscape of Africa.

What many may have overlooked is how the Nile has contributed to the architectural wonders that Egypt is well known for. From the Pyramids of Giza to temples like Luxor and Karnak, these wonders were built up using the resources from the Nile. Ancient Egyptians exploited parts of the Nile to extract tons and tons of limestone and granite which were used to build pyramids. The river essentially breathed life into the construction of these monuments, and they carried on and stood through time to become symbols of the power and sophistication of Ancient Egypt.

​

The Nile is not just a mere additional feature to Egypt’s vast portfolio of wonders, but rather a foundation for Egypt’s civilization and culture. Without the Nile, Egypt’s civilization would have not developed the way it did; due to the lack of rain, the Nile was a primary source of

water for crops and various other purposes for Ancient Egyptians. It built the Egyptian civilization block by block, even forming a part of Egypt’s spiritual history. It has contributed greatly to the agriculture and economy of Egypt and has thus propagated Egypt’s culture and development. It is one of the biggest reasons why Egyptian civilization has endured through time and left a mark all over the world – it truly lives up to its title of being the bloodline of Egypt.

​

Sources:

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/nile-river/

https://www.britannica.com/place/Egypt/Transportation-and-telecommunications

https://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-africa/nile-river-008937

https://www.britannica.com/place/Thebes-ancient-Egypt

https://www.africanelements.org/news/unveiling-the-nile-rivers-influence-on-ancient- egyptian-civilization/

https://edition.cnn.com/2022/09/02/world/nile-river-egypt-pyramid-scn- trnd/index.html#:~:text=Scientists%20have%20long%20theorized%20that,sites%20to%20 be%20of%20use

https://www.britannica.com/place/Memphis-ancient-city-Egypt

Arabic fragrances are often praised for their rich and reputable formulas, gaining popularity far beyond the Middle East. Despite this, most perfume connoisseurs aren’t familiar with the cultural hallmarks and generations of traditions that are carried within these bottles of perfume. This can be demonstrated through the complex path taken by travellers through the Ancient Incesnse Route, encompassing roads and towns as unique and complex as the sough- after scents themselves.

​

While most people will immediately have their mind drift to the Silk Road when discussing notable historic trade routes, few are aware of the Incense Route and its magnificent backstory. This ancient network of trade routes extended over two thousand kilometres of sea and land to facilitate the transport of frankincense and myrrh from Yemen and Oman in the Arabian Peninsula to the Mediterranean. The route carrying these precious commodities, found exclusively in Somalia, Ethiopia and southern Arabia, also oversaw the trade of pearls and animal skin. The trade of the treasured frankincense, a symbol of celebration and commemoration used during wedding ceremonies and burials, spanned from 7th century BC to the 2nd century AD.

​

The trade route of aromatics spanned over multiple modern-day countries, with the journey commencing in Oman and continuing to the southern tip of the Arabian peninsula in modern- day Yemen with its Gulf of Aden from which merchants would ship their products to faraway ports in India and China. Egyptian ports received products throug the Red Sea. Meanwhile, caravans carried varieties of aromatics and other highly sought after goods northward in caravans to hubs such as Gaza, Petra, Mecca and Medina. To the west, frankincense and other commodities shipped from the peninsula were valued in the Hellenistic-Roman world.

​

With ithe prominence of trade between 5th century BC and 1st century AD, entire cities and kingdoms were developed long the route, which created mass wealth for its rulers. Trade in luxury aromatics reached its heyday as the Nabataean tribe, originally from the Arabian interior, took control in the 1st century BCE during which they blended characteritisc of diverse cultures in a civilization driven by wealth derived from trade, particularly in frankincense.

​

The developmenta and expansion of the route was a hallmark in the history of the region, highlighting its economic prowess and abaility to utilise maritime routes that are relevant to global trade to this day. The routes also provided a means of passage not only for frankincense and other trade goods but also for people and ideas, cementing the role and influence of the MENA in ancient times.

​

Sources:

https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/history/modern-world-history/incense-route/ https://www.livius.org/articles/place/incense-route/

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/paid-content-scent-and-spice-alulas- incense-road

I- Fast facts:

- There are over 300 million native Arabic speakers, making it the 5th most spoken language.

- It is the official language of 22 countries.

- Arabic is a member of the semitic language family, which also includes: Aramaic, Amharic,

Phoenician, Assyrian and Hebrew.

II- History:

Classical Arabic

- Originated over 1000 years ago in Mecca, Saudi Arabia

- Spread across North Africa, the Middle East and Iberian regions

- Many regional dialects developed which are still in use today

Modern Standard Arabic (MSA)

- Developed after the formation of dialects in order to organize the arabic language

- Currently used in writing and formal contexts

- The language taught in schools and considered the “official” arabic language, in contrast with

regional dialects

III- Structure of the language:

- Written horizontally from right to left

- There are 28 letters in the arabic alphabet

- Each letter has 4 different forms depending on its position within the word

- The language follows the abjad system, meaning that all 28 symbols represent only consonants

There are additional diacritics* called “tahrik”, which include vowel terms called “harakat”

*diacritics are glyph additions to basic letters, also referred to as accents. For instance: e, é, è, and ê.

IV- Dialect groups:

There are over 30 types of modern arabic language, which can be categorized into 4 main dialect groups:

- Levantine:

Where? The Levant including Lebanon, Syria, Palestine and Jordan

Words typical of the dialect (in MSA):

How are you: Kifak (kayfa halouka حالك كيف(

Now: Hala (al an اآلن(

What: Shou (matha ماذا(

- Maghrebi:

Where? Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya

Words typical of the dialect (in MSA):

How are you: Wash rak (kayfa halouka حالك كيف(

Please: Aafak (arjouk ارجوك(

Store: Hanout (matjar متجر(

- Egyptian:

Where? Egypt

Words typical of the dialect (in MSA):

How are you: Izzayak (kayfa halouka حالك كيف(

I want: Aayiz (ouridou اريد(

I don’t know: Ma'rafsh (la aalam اعلم ال(

- Gulf:

Where? The Arab Gulf including but not limited to Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Qatar and Bahrain

Words typical of the dialect (in MSA):

How are you: Mou almoush (kayfa halouka حالك كيف(

Rice: Aaysh (riz رز(

Fork: Jatal (shawka شوكة(

As is shown in the examples above, dialects greatly differ from each other and from MSA making it

difficult for people of different backgrounds to understand each other

There are some countries whose dialects do not belong to any of the aforementioned groups for instance

Iraq, Somalia and Mauritania

V- Arabic now:

- An interesting development is the use of Latin alphabet to communicate in Arabic

- Due to the high informality of that system, it is mostly used in dialects rather than MSA

- To account for the missing letters, numbers are used to replace them, for instance:

2 Alf أ 2alil (little)

3 Ayn ع Ma3 (with)

5 Kh خ E5et (sister)

7 Ha ح B7ebbak (i love you)

Thus, an example of a sentence (in Levant dialect) would be:

Be3tezir la te25ire bas kein ma3e 7arara

(I’m sorry for being late but I had a fever)

VI- References:

- https://www.mustgo.com/worldlanguages/arabic-modern-standard/https://renaissance-translations

.com/arabic-language-history/

- https://alifarabic.com/what-is-the-history-of-the-arabic-language/#:~:text=The%20roots%20of%2

0the%20Arabic,the%20language%20of%20the%20 Quran.

- https://lingualism.com/arabic/unique-words-in-arabic-dialects-that-even-other-arabs-may-not-und

erstand/

- https://renaissance-translations.com/arabic-language-history/

The AFC Asian Cup is a quadrennial event that features Asia's best national teams, a platform that showcases football prowess and easily amplifies national pride. Their triumphs in the competition have greatly highlighted the immense progress that the beautiful game has made across nations in the Middle East, as Arab sides have had fruitful journeys shining through. Their significance towards the development of Asian football cannot be overstated, their contributions to the development of tactical and technical aspects, team management and culture surpassing tournament victories. This article sets out to examine Arab teams' history in the AFC Asian Cup and how they have impacted the development of Asian football.

The inaugural AFC Asian Cup tournament in 1972 saw Arab sides make their debut as part of a six-team competition with Thailand the hosts, Iran, the Khmer Republic now called Cambodia, and South Korea in a single group. Following the exclusion of Israel from the AFC in 1974, as part of the boycott of Israel in sports, arab teams resumed to participate normally following the 1976 tournament.

In the 1980s and 1990s, Arab teams started to rise to prominence in the AFC Asian Cup. Kuwait was the first to achieve this in 1980, when they won the championship, beating Saudi Arabia in an arab final. Saudi Arabia followed suit clinching the title in back-to-back triumphs in 1984 and 1988, with the likes of Majed Abdullah and Khalid Al Mu’wallid playing influential roles. Although the UAE had eagerly hosted the competition in 1996 and made it to the final, they were narrowly defeated 0-1 by their regional rivals Saudi Arabia. These moments represent high points for Arab teams in the tournament and remain memorable for both players and spectators.

In recent years, Arab teams continued to record significant progress in the AFC Asian Cup. Iraq won the championship in 2007, marking their first triumph. Qatar won the 2019 edition, holding the title of Champions amidst the political tensions in the region. Other performances of note saw Oman achieve progression to the knockout rounds in 2019 in what represented the first instance in the nation's annals that the round of 16 was attained. Bahrain and Palestine have also made it to the knock-out rounds in recent tournaments. These achievements continue to underline the growth of Arab teams' capacity and competitiveness, signalling similar future outcomes.

While Arab teams continue to compete and make progress in the tournament, political challenges and tensions significantly impact their performance. From Qatar's political dispute with the host country of the 2019 tournament to Iran boycotting the 1972 edition due to political reasons, many Arab teams have had to navigate through multi-faceted difficulties. A common example of this is the Syrian national team. Many Syrians, both within and outside of the country, are unwilling to support the national football team due to its close association with the Assad regime. This has made it challenging for the team to bring together the Syrian people, as it has become a divisive force in the country's already complex political landscape. Additionally, the players' objectivity has been affected by this association, making it difficult for them to accurately represent Syria on the global stage. The ongoing internal conflicts and ravages of war that have long plagued countries such as Yemen and Iraq have created immense difficulties for their national teams to receive the adequate support and resources generally afforded to teams from more stable nations, severely limiting their potential on the international stage. These challenges have posed significant setbacks to Arab teams, affecting their preparation and weakening their competitive edge. Nonetheless, these teams' resilience and determination to succeed continue to forge a path towards success.

Arab clubs have profoundly shaped the Asian game since the late 1980s, fundamentally impacting the region's football landscape. With their steady advancements in team management and tactical strategies, other Asian countries started to emulate and adopt similar techniques, leading to Asian teams rising to compete on the global stage. The development of individual players among Arab teams also laid the foundation for the growth of Asian players' technical capability and application. Alongside this, there is a significant contribution towards regional football culture, including ardent fans' display of loyalty and passion for their national teams. Contrary to earlier impressions of Arab teams as accommodating teams, these teams have shown immense tactical abilities and team coordination, nurturing the growth potential of Asian football.

The future of Arab teams in the AFC Asian Cup remains bright, with several promising prospects on the horizon. Upcoming tournaments could see more Arab teams secure a place in the knockout stages, even clinching the title again. However, several challenges and opportunities exist, ranging from political tensions to the declining grassroots development of football in some Arab countries. Expectations are high for Arab teams to contribute more to the progress of Asian football, as they had done in the past. The long-term impact of Arab teams' progress will continue to influence and increase the competitiveness of Asian football, leading to more exciting and challenging opportunities for all teams involved.

In retrospect, the history and achievements of Arab teams in the AFC Asian Cup display football's transformation in the Middle East and the significant efforts of these teams towards its development. Their accomplishments on the pitch have drawn attention to Arab football's progress, including winning multiple championships, top-four finishes, and the impact they have had on advancing tactical and technical aspects of football. Arab teams' progress has been a trailblazer for the growth of Asian football, laying the blueprint for other countries to emulate their success. Arab teams' contribution towards creating footballing cultures and pride for their national teams transcends beyond the sport and culminates in their role in the development of regional football history.

References

[1] https://www.skynewsarabia.com/sport/1214524-%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8-%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%94%D8%B3-%D8%A7%D9%93%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7-%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D9%885-%D8%A7%D9%94%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A8

[2] https://www.thenationalnews.com/sport/the-1996-asian-cup-what-was-and-what-could-have-been-for-the-uae-1.121319

[3] https://www.abc.net.au/news/2004-08-08/japan-sink-china-in-heated-asia-cup-final/2022274

[4] http://edition.cnn.com/2011/SPORT/01/29/football.asian.japan.australia/index.html

[5] https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/17/sports/qatar-saudi-arabia-asian-cup.html

As the twenty-first anniversary of the 2003 US-led invasion of Iraq approaches, it's important to analyse the effects of that war, and the current social and political state of the country. It was an invasion which promised to topple a dictatorial regime, replacing it with democracy. It vowed to restore peace and hope, relieve the world of a nuclear threat and bring Iraq into the twenty-first century. Yet, over two decades onwards, these promises have proven themselves to be nothing but empty lies, as Iraq navigates through political instability, sectarian violence and socioeconomic turmoil.

The true victor of the war is often regarded to have been Iran. The Iranian government holds exclusive and almost total control over political and economic affairs in Iraq. In essence, if somebody is in a position of power or influence, it's because Iran provided their stamp of approval, and if someone is removed from power- even through indirect means- it is because Iran willed it. This control was directly made possible by the total collapse of Iraqi political, economic and social structures after the war. Iran took advantage of the chaos, and penetrated through Iraq's weak defences, to establish control and promote their own interests. Iran has directly benefited from its tight grasp on Iraq’s most valuable commodity- oil. Moreover, most of the politicians who have taken power were Iraqis who were exiled to Iran under the previous regime- most of whom would traditionally be considered traitors for acts which they committed against the country. This influence has not remained strictly political, as Iranian culture has managed to infiltrate into Iraqi society, paving the way for special occasions such as Nowruz (The Persian spring festival) to be commemorated. There has also been a significant influence on religious practices in the country, which is arguably what first gave rise to sectarian tensions in the country.

Perhaps a more concerning development in Iraq, has been the immense pro-Iranian propaganda which plagues the nation, and the absurd attempts to disguise or outrightly erase the history of the country. The previous regime led by the infamous Saddam Hussein, is both revered and condemned by Iraqis, but Iran had always firmly stood against the leader. Thus, as a result of a combination of anti-Saddam Iraqis and Iranian-backed officials holding power in the country, any traces of the positive effects which Saddam had on Iraq have either been hidden or completely destroyed. One of the most notorious examples being the incineration of a belt of palm trees which Saddam planted around the city of Baghdad to protect it from sand storms. The act was counterproductive, as only a few years later in 2008, the government started an initiative to achieve the same “Green Belt”, but were unsuccessful due to incorrect planting methods. Another example is the refusal of authorities to complete the building of the Al-Rahman Mosque, which Saddam had begun, intending it to be a grand attraction in the country's capital. Now, it lays an eerie incomplete structure, with no real purpose. Several of these actions collectively seem self-sabotaging on behalf of the government.

It is not only destruction of history which has taken place, but also a complete manipulation of events of the past. If one was to take a step into the museum portion of the ‘Al-Shaheed’ monument in Iraq, they would be greeted by an endless row of pictures of “martyrs” from the 1980’s Iraq-Iran war, or so it would appear. The reality is that the actual walls of the building are engraved with names and testimonies of Iraqi soldiers and victims who were martyred, whereas the makeshift boards plastered with pictures simply consist of, as previously mentioned, those who would traditionally be seen as traitors for their collaborations with the Iranian regime. Or even worse, people who weren't at all involved in the war. This manipulation is particularly concerning for future generations of Iraqis, as well as tourists, who will leave the museum having completely ignored the engraved wall, and the truth which it holds. Additionally, tourists arriving to the capital will likely be bombarded with posters upon posters featuring prominent Iranian figure Qassem Soleimani and Iraqi militia leader Abu Mahdi Al Muhandis, who were both killed in an American drone attack in Baghdad in 2018. The idea of the posters is to commemorate their so-called martyrdom, when in actuality, it is just a show of just how much power Iran possesses over Iraq, in that it can decide who is considered a martyr, and who should be commemorated. By any logic, these men would be considered enemies of the country, but it seems that post-war Iraq has become an open arena for illogical actions.

It's difficult to discuss the state of Iraq after the war without bringing special attention to sectarian violence. Tensions between the two Islamic sects- Shi'ism and Sunnism- were certainly present before the war due to Saddam’s firm anti-Shia stance, but they seemed to erupt into outright violence after the war. This was partly thanks to Iran's Shia influence, and partly as a result of a rise of Sunni opposition. At its worst, the war between the sects resulted in Iraq being divided into Shia and Sunni controlled areas- with some areas being controlled by both. Of course the biggest victims of this were the citizens of Iraq. Life revolved around being at the right place at the right time. It became common practice to have endless checkpoints around Baghdad and other areas, so that a Sunni man, with a Sunni name, could by chance be stopped at a Shia controlled checkpoint, and by merely hearing his name, they could choose to kill him. These instances were so common that it caused people to change their names, or stray away from sect-specific names- and perhaps even more extreme, it forced Iraqis with controversial names to stay out of the country. Although the violence has calmed down in recent years, the immense divide between the two sects in the country is still felt both socially and politically- where the government is now controlled by an overwhelming Shia majority.

Lastly, the aftermath of the war led to a significant rise in corruption in the country. During Saddam-era Iraq, although the political system was labelled a dictatorship, it was that very stringent and strict crackdown on any form of deceit and fraud which allowed the country to run in a more lawful and organised manner. This seems a far cry from where Iraq is now, a country whose own Prime Minister claimed in a speech that “99% of all building permits require bribes''. Bribery has become the prime form of corruption in the country. It has plagued every part of the ordinary person's life. Take renewing a passport for example, it's almost guaranteed that at every stage of that process, you will have to slip in money to any worker you interact with, and not to get them to speed up the operation for you, just simply to get them to do their job. It is practices like these which have given Iraq a ranking of 169 in the World Corruption Index, and a score of 23 out of 100 (100 being completely clean of any corruption). But corruption extends past society, and into the government, where government officials and authorities endowed with power have been notorious for stealing from their citizens, and from the country's natural riches. It is a combination of theft and bribery which have left little room for development for Iraq.

As has been illustrated, the aftermath of the US Invasion of Iraq has been immense for all aspects. It is a culmination of all these factors, and many more which haven’t been mentioned, which has resulted in almost complete stagnance for Iraq on all fronts. It is very telling that a country as rich as Iraq, is still unable to provide running electricity and water for its citizens- even in the depths of summer where the air-conditioning for many Iraqis becomes their only salvation away from the colossal heat. Many believe that as long as there is a leash on Iraq being held by Iran, there won’t be any real improvement in the situation.

Sources:

https://theintercept.com/2023/03/17/iraq-war-iran-cables/

https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/how-much-influence-does-iran-have-iraq

https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/20/analysis-irans-influence-prevents-iraqs-arab-reintegration

https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/iran-news/iran-claims-to-reveal-qasem-soleimanis-key-role-in-defeat-of-isis-analysis-686847

https://www.cfr.org/timeline/iraq-war

https://mediaengagement.org/research/social-media-iraq-tishreen-movement/

https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20211205-incomplete-saddam-era-marquee-mosque-lays-bare-iraq-divisions

https://tradingeconomics.com/iraq/corruption-index

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/30/iraq6

https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/55372

https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/18/iraq-faces-growing-violence-as-political-rift-deepens

The inspiration for this topic came from a visit to the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, England, where there were displays of Ancient Egyptian and Persian gold pieces. It was the Ancient Egyptians who discovered different ways to change the colour of gold and started experimenting with gold sculptures. The origins of these jewellery pieces date back centuries. Gold is more than a material for jewellery; it was also used for the decoration of tombs, temples, weaponry, glassware and more. Moving on to more recent times, in the 1900s Dubai - the United Arab Emirates - was (and still continues to be) a major hub for trading gold. Dubai provided a tax-free, trade-friendly environment where individuals could buy and sell gold easily. The city still harbours a great market for gold trade, with more than 400 stores in its gold souq. In recent social media trends, gold accessories have become mainstream. The recognition of the beauty and versatility of gold jewellery resulted in a rise in its popularity. While this article focuses on women in the MENA region, it is important to note that gold is popular in multiple regions of the world as well.

Jewellery has always acted as a form of financial security for women in the MENA region. During times of political and economic unrest, gold creates a sense of safety for women Elaborate gold accessories are found in many MENA region cultures and are viewed as a staple when giving a dowry to women when proposing. It shows commitment, sincerity, security, and respect for the woman and her family. Outside of marriage, women in the region view it as a good investment to maintain. If need be, gold is easy to sell no matter its market value. Two-thirds of gold bought in the Middle East is for savings. Furthermore, gold is generally the ‘go-to’ metal to accessorise due to its cultural significance and appearance on skin tones within the region. Women are very proud of their gold pieces, as they illustrate prosperity, elegance, and their cultural identity.

Since gold is rooted in the MENA region's culture, it's natural for women to pass down pieces from generation to generation. As the trend of using gold accessories grows, comments made on “over the top” gold pieces arise, as well as statements made on how “unclassy” and “inelegant” gold pieces can be. While opinions on something as trivial as jewellery would not normally have serious repercussions, it is vital to ensure that opinions do not manifest into negative labels placed on women of colour. Titling gold jewellery as unsophisticated may reinforce prejudices or stereotypes which lead to discrimination against women of color, who only seek to partake in cultural traditions. The fashion industry famously suffers from a lack of diversity and representation. Due to the fact that social media facilitates a fast-paced trend cycle, what was once “fashionable” is now “out.” Unfortunately, this is a fact. However, it is important to be aware of the language used when discussing culturally significant pieces of jewellery and clothing in general.

Sources

https://www.mygoldguide.in/understanding-significance-gold-middle-eastern-countries https://www.arabamerica.com/why-is-gold-so-vital-to-arab-culture/

https://www.only-connect.co.uk/post/gold-is-old-arab-women-through-the-looking-glass

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold#History

    A common misconception, oversimplification and falsification of Palestinian history and its national liberation struggle is that this struggle is and has always been dominated by Islam or tinged with religious extremism. This argument has too often been used to equate Palestinian national resistance to Islamic ideology, thereby delegitimizing and illegalizing any form of Palestinian struggle. Furthermore, it is folded into a narrative of an unbridgeable divide between Israeli-Jews and Palestinian-Arabs, that these two peoples cannot coexist, or do not engage in sustained political discourse, dialogue and agreement. 

    However, as we hope to demonstrate in this infographic, this was not always the case and does not have to be so. We will attempt to do so through examining two Palestinian and Jewish organizations which during the 1970’s, the hightide of secular left politics, proposed radically different visions for the future of the region, which today have been almost entirely forgotten, and which often found common cause between each other despite this so-called ‘unbridgeable divide” between Jews and Arabs. 

​

The Other Palestine: 

Name: Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) 

Well-Known Members: 

● George Habash 

● Ghassan Kanafani 

● Mohamed Boudia 

Positions: 

● Marxism-Leninism/Revolutionary Socialism 

● Secularism and Anti-Zionism

● One-State Solution (Bi-National State) 

​

The PFLP is a broadly Marxist-Leninist revolutionary organization which was founded by members such as George Habash, Nayef Hawatmeh and Wadie Haddad and which emerged out of the traumatic and radicalizing experience of the Six Day War and the Naksa (Setback) in 1967. Although firmly committed to armed struggle, leading to several controversial and violent actions, the group sought to wage armed struggle for the goal of creating a unified state which included and granted equality to both Jews and Arabs. (SPLIT) The PFLP was uncompromising in both denouncing Israeli settler-colonialism while rebuking reactionary elements within Palestinian society stating in their manifesto: “Our enemy in the battle is Israel, Zionist, world imperialism and Arab reaction.”. As a result, and at the height of its popularity in the 1970’s, the PFLP often served as the leading opposition to Fatah and consistently criticized Fatah’s and then the PLO’s policies on Palestine’s economic

development, its noticeable streak of political and financial corruption and on its adoption of a peace process which sought to establish two separate states. 

​

“Strategy for the Liberation of Palestine”

    Reflecting this support for a one-state solution the PFLP drafted in 1969, in the wake of its Second Congress, a cohesive strategy and thought to achieve Palestinian liberation which was outlined in the document “Strategy for the Liberation of Palestine” which boldly declared the following: 

​

“The Palestinian liberation movement is not a racial movement with aggressive intentions against the Jews. It is not directed against the Jews. Its object is to destroy the state of Israel as a military, political and economic establishment that rests on aggression, expansion and organic connection with imperialist interests in our homeland. It is against Zionism as an aggressive racial movement connected with imperialism, which has exploited the sufferings of the Jews as a stepping stone for the promotion of its interests and the interests of imperialism in this part of the world that possesses rich resources and provides a bridgehead into the countries of Africa and Asia. The aim of the Palestinian liberation movement is to establish a democratic national state in Palestine in which both Arabs and Jews will live as citizens with equal rights and obligations and that will constitute an integral part of the progressive democratic Arab national presence living peacefully with all  forces of progress in the world.”

​

The Other Israel: 

Name: Matzpen 

​

Well-Known Members: 

● Moshe Machover 

● Akiva Orr 

● Jabra Nicola 

​

Positions: 

● Anti-Occupation/Anti-Zionism 

● Marxism/New Left

● One-State Solution/Socialist Federation 

​

 On the other side of the ‘unbridgeable divide’ was the now little remembered organization Matzpen (meaning Compass in Hebrew) or the Socialist Organization in Israel which was established in 1962. The result of opposition to the Israeli Communist Party and its unquestioning loyalty to the USSR, Matzpen quickly became one of the leading anti-Zionist groups in Israel. Like the PFLP the impact of the Six Day War (1967) was profound on Matzpen, who began producing a publication and organizing demonstrations, through it coining the slogan “Down With Occupation!”.

​

   However, unlike the PFLP which was designed to be a militant mass revolutionary party, Matzpen functioned more as an inner circle of intellectuals and activists who operated across a multitude of organizations. This meant that although the organization fell apart by the 1980’s many of its members would go on to play crucial roles in organizing resistance to Zionism and specific policies. Matzpen was arguably essential in developing a comprehensive and detailed theory and body of work that analyzed and criticized Zionism and which underpins much of Jewish anti-Zionist thought to this day. 

​

“The Basic Principles” 

These ideas and positions were crystallized and re-affirmed in a document called “The Basic Principles” which was published in 1973 and which went on to not only firmly reject Zionism but outlined a vision where both Palestine and Israel would be united within a larger federation that spanned the Middle East and which was based on the principle of self-determination: 

“The solution of the national and social problems of this region (including the Palestinian problem and the Israeli–Arab conflict) can come about only through a socialist revolution in this region, which will overthrow all its existing regimes and will replace them by a political union of the region, ruled by the toilers. In this united and liberated Arab East, recognition will be granted to the right of self-determination (including the right to a separate state) of each of the non-Arab nationalities living in the region, including the Israeli-Jewish nation. As part of the struggle for this revolution, Matzpen struggles for the overthrow of the Zionist regime and the abolition of all the institutions, laws, regulations and practices on which it rests. Matzpen strives for a living-together of Arabs and Jews, based on full equality; and for the integration of this country’s two peoples – the Israeli-Jewish and the Palestinian-Arab peoples – in the regional socialist union, on the basis of free choice. Matzpen works towards the development of internationalist consciousness among both peoples, which would make such integration possible."

​

   As we have just explored and uncovered, throughout much of the second half of the 20th century, and even until today, organizations and associations existed for both the Israeli and Palestinian people, which spoke of a different world and that thereby challenged injustice, exploitation and oppression back then and that still challenge our assumptions about the ideologies of the conflict today. Not only did both sides propose radical ideas and futures, such as the formation of a single state and the full integration and equality of Jews and Arabs, but they also were molded by the same events, such as the Six Day War (1967), and showcase interconnected if often threatened political landscape. While the writings and dreams of these groups may today seem even more impossible and distant, and we should avoid uncritically copying them word for word or leaving them unchanged despite new conditions, developments and realities, what we must learn from these groups is to always reject the notion that another Israel and Palestine is impossible or that our common future is fated to be painted with blood.

​

Sources: 

Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - Wikipedia 

Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) | ECFR 

“Strategy for the Liberation of Palestine” - Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine; https://foreignlanguages.press/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/S08-PFLP-Strategy-Lib-Palestine-7th-Printing. pdf. 

Matzpen - Wikipedia 

About Matzpen 

Basic Principles

The Middle East is known to be a gold mine for oil; holding 40% of the world’s gas reserves and 880 Bbo of oil. For the longest time, this commodity has proven to play a pivotal role in Middle Eastern economics and politics. But first, the question that arises is how the Middle East came to be the land known for its rich oil reserves. Why exactly is it that the Middle East, out of all the continents, is the one with the most plentiful supply of this liquid gold?

The vast majority of credit goes to the Earth’s geographical development. The area now widely recognized as the Arabian Peninsula, used to be the location for the Tethys Ocean which was incredibly rich in microorganisms and nutrients. The tectonic movement of the Earth caused the ocean to dry out, and over time layers upon layers of new land started to form on top of the saturated sea bed. As time passed by these layers compressed the organic matter interlaced between them, resulting in the production of an abundance of fossil fuel. As of today, the Middle East remains to be the world’s largest energy exporter, exporting 1.36 billion tons of oil annually.

Oil being a Superpower:

With nature giving a significant advantage to the Middle East, what is witnessed now is the immense power that Oil brings. Being home to the world’s largest oil reserves, the Middle East has become a key player in the energy landscape globally. This has resulted in oil becoming an economic backbone for the Middle East, which also branches out to benefit other sectors.

1) Government Revenue:

Oil reaps the most revenue for governments in the Middle East, but particularly those of the GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council) countries. A third of the world’s oil is produced in the Middle East and Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Kuwait are amongst the world’s top suppliers of oil. A significant reason for this is evidently the geographical location of these countries, but also the fact that GCC countries are among the ones where the development and production of crude oil is the cheapest. In Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Kuwait, the production costs vary from 3-5 dollars a barrel, according to IEA (International Energy Agency) estimates. This means that when these countries export oil to regions where such a significant supply doesn’t exist, coupled with their low production costs, the revenue that is streamed in is abundant and ends up forming a significant part of these countries’ GDPs.

2) Overall development:

Mass government revenue that these oil rich countries rack up is further reinvested to their societies and fuels the development of social programs and infrastructure. For instance, Saudi Arabia is the largest crude oil producer, producing 12.2 million barrels per day. Additionally, it also leads in distillation capacities with 3 million barrels a day. This level of production has reaped much government revenue which has transformed Saudi Arabia in recent decades; transforming its infrastructure for the better. Having oil has become an asset for these countries to create jobs, invest in industries, build substantial diplomatic ties and even military power. These countries have also used their oil wealth to invest in industries around the world, gaining even more economic influence that can be used for political leverage. Thus, oil has facilitated an all-around development in various sectors and has given room for political advantages.

3) Political influence through the OPEC

Many of the Middle Eastern countries are members of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). 37.9% of the world’s crude oil is produced by these member countries, and the influence of such an organization are significant. OPEC essentially coordinates oil pricing as well as extraction quotas, and because a significant supply of oil comes from OPEC countries, the decisions undertaken by this organization increase competition not just regionally in the Middle East, but also globally. Decisions can seriously impact the global economy and oil prices, and subsequently OPEC is a hub for attaining significant control of the global oil market and immense political power.

How the times are changing

Despite all the benefits that oil has brought to the Middle East, the nature of the dynamics of economies never stalls. As times are changing, some problems have arisen that Middle Eastern countries are still trying to tackle.

1) Increasing need for diversification

Even though reliance on crude oil has been great for GCC countries, trouble in paradise is always due. In terms of simple economics, reliance on just one sector has never proved to be beneficial in the long run. These countries heavily involved in oil trade have essentially put all their eggs in one basket. Reliance on one sector means that any subsequent consequences and risks are all dependent on that sector itself, thus stability is a crucial element but like in any economy, no sector can be completely stable. The global market for oil has become volatile due to a change in attitudes towards crude oil at a time when climate change and global warming has increasingly become an alarming concern, and also because of the availability of newer, “environmental friendly” fuels. The COVID-19 pandemic really hit the final nail in the coffin for many GCC countries as it demonstrated the effects of a drop in the global demand in oil which led to the fall in global prices of oil. For this reason, many of them are seeking to diversify their economies. The diversification of the economy is an objective outlined by Saudi Arabia in its Vision 2030, and changes are also taking place in the UAE as it seeks to improve high-end manufacturing in industries like aerospace and medicine, all in an effort to aim to increase its non-oil sector by 7.5% annually.

2) Environmental concerns

As the world grapples with the consequences of rising global warming and climate change, more regard is being given to more efficient, environmentally friendly sources of energy. Fossil fuels are notorious for their adverse effects on the earth, due to which the demand for oil has taken a blow. While drilling oil itself can be very harmful to the environment, what needs to also be given consideration is how oil and gas transport across countries also is a huge factor to this problem especially with regard to the GCC countries.

3) Political instability

At times, the revenue generated by oil trade has been reinvested to illegally fund terrorism in Syria, Yemen, and Iraq. Political and military power gained through oil trade has also allowed backdoor politics to take place and has also given way for countries to support proxy forces in conflicts overseas.

Sources:

https://www.statista.com/topics/6508/middle-east-oil-industry/#topicOverview

https://ncusar.org/blog/2013/03/basic-facts-about-oil-and-gas-in-the-arab-world/

https://geoexpro.com/how-much-oil-in-the-middle-east/

https://www.brinknews.com/how-does-the-arab-world-move-away-from-oil-dependence/

https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/oil-and-petroleum-products/oil-and-the-environment.php#:~:text=Exploring%20and%20drilling%20for%20oil,clearing%20an%20area%20of%20vegetation.

https://www.ice.org.uk/what-is-civil-engineering/what-do-civil-engineers-do/oil-development-in-the-middle-east#:~:text=Oil%20sales%20have%20created%20immense,a%20direct%20result%20of%20oil.

This article contains discussions of explicit violence and may be distressing for some readers. Names have been changed for anonymity.

“Do you want peace or justice?”
“I wish I knew what peace means.”​

Since the start of the Hamas-Israel war, Israel has led over 970 attacks targeting Lebanon. Whilst most of the shelling has remained within the south of Lebanon near the border with Israel, it has climbed increasingly north in the country even targeting the capital Beirut. Sadly, the bombardments are nothing new: the two states have a long history of turmoil, violence and war; the most recent one dating back to 2006. The south of Lebanon is almost always the first target in these escalations. As a result the area is now experiencing daily Israeli bombardment which has caused nearly 65,000 Lebanese people to flee.

Leila, a young woman from the village Bani Haiyyan, is currently seeking shelter in Beirut along with her parents. She describes the situation in the southern village to be “incredibly bad,” explaining that prior to her leaving, “the house would shake any time a bomb dropped.” Terror, fear and sadness are overwhelmingly present in the south, as Leila explains: “it’s sad to see the roads you know, the house you grew up in, our olive trees completely destroyed.” In fact, Israel has been using white phosphorus bombs to target Lebanese forests, causing over 130 forest fires. The use of such weapons has been deemed a war crime by Amnesty International.

But the loss of material possessions cannot be compared to the loss of lives: “Parents should not be searching for their children in the rubble, they should be playing with them. This should not be happening!” said Dr. Atef in a separate interview. Dr. Atef is a psychiatrist who is from a village 4km away from the border, and like so many Lebanese is unable to stay in his village.​

He explained that while people from the south of Lebanon are used to Israel’s aggressive war tactics, this time is different. Which is further confirmed by Leila’s experience of Israel’s first attack since the start of conflicts: “I was sleeping when the sound of Israeli missiles woke me up, but I went back to sleep since Israel always shells in the south and breaks the sound barrier. I thought it was just another random bomb, but we got word that it was serious.” Dr. Atef elaborates on the psychological dangers of this pattern, finding it “a shame that we [Lebanese people] have this resilience, it’s incredibly concerning how used we are to this new crisis: there’s nothing normal about bombardments, there’s nothing normal about war.”​

Another psychological issue would be the added stress and PTSD that southern Lebanese are experiencing. Dr. Atef explains that knowing Lebanon’s history with Israel, there is cause for worry. Furthermore, “unlike previous years, Israel doesn’t have any more logic behind their attacks, just one goal: destruction, death, pain.” Leila also expresses great concern, as she is worried that further escalations could not only annihilate her village, but Lebanon as a whole due to the threats made by Israeli heads of state. In fact, Israeli officials are continuously threatening Lebanon; Benjamin Netanyahu, the Prime Minister of Israel, said that he “will turn Beirut into Gaza and Khan Yunis”; whilst Yoav Gallant, Israel’s minister of defense threatened to “erode every inch of Lebanon” even claiming he’ll be “sending Lebanon back to the Stone Age.”

When asked if they wanted peace between Lebanon and Israel, both Leila and Dr. Atef responded by a counter question: What does peace actually look like? The psychiatrist explains that no peace could be achieved in the short-term: “Israel won’t stop. They’ll just keep going until our entire country is either theirs, or gone.” “War and violence were the last resorts”, he continued, and he wishes there was another way to defend Lebanon, yet “when faced with Israel only violence works.”​

Violence, certainly, is not anyone’s first choice. No one chooses war, but they are forced into it. Dr. Atef highlights this point clearly: “How could you convince a father not to intercept a bullet if it were hitting his children? How do you expect a mother not to shield her children when her house is bombed? All those who died, did so for others to live on.”

The psychiatrist further clarifies the misconception that soldiers either Lebanese, Palestinians or even Israelis want to fight: “Due to misrepresentation in the media, foreigners often believe that Arabs and Israelis have a culture of death, that we’re so used to the bombs and we aren’t really affected by tragedies anymore. Foreigners forget we’re just like them; we want happiness, we want to go out with our friends, we want to study and have a career, we want to live and grow old and love and be loved. How could they say we have a culture of death? Israel has imposed death upon us, both the dead and the living: When one person dies because of missiles, it’s like their family, friends, loved ones, they all die too but of grief. 

All of our hearts break for every heart that stops beating.”

​

Sources:

https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/10/lebanon-evidence-of-israels-unlawful-us e-of-white-phosphorus-in-southern-lebanon-as-cross-border-hostilities-escalate/

https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/mapping-clashes-along-israel-lebano n-border

​https://www.aub.edu.lb/natureconservation/Documents/Brief%20WP%20English.pdf

​https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/12/8/netanyahu-threatens-hezbollah-after-cross-border-attack-kills-civilian

​https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/8/9/israel-threatens-to-return-lebanon-to-stone-age -in-any-war-with-hezbollah

Islamic scholars played a really important role in laying the foundations of the fields of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) that we live in today. Since the coming of Islam, scholars have contributed immensely to various areas of STEM, from medication to technology and beyond. In order to recognize and revalue the contributions of Islamic scholars to STEM, it is imperative to look at their contributions.

Early Islamic scholars such as Al-Khwarizmi, Al-Razi, and Al-Farabi made substantial contributions to STEM that set the base for modern-day knowledge. [1] Al-Khwarizmi's contributions to math include the development of algebra and the entry into the Hindu-Arabic number system. Al-Razi's contributions to medication run from his observations and diagnosis of smallpox to his development of a categorisation scheme for mineral and brute substances. [2] Finally, Al-Farabi's contributions to science were mainly inward the theatre of philosophy and included a comprehensive categorization of the sciences. These scholars' contributions to STEM march the interdisciplinary nature of knowledge and the really important role it plays inwards defining our world today.

The Islamic Golden Age of the 8th to the 13th century was a stop in the flourishing of STEM that saw outstanding advances within science, mathematics, medicine, and philosophy. One of the major factors that helped contour Islamic scholarship was the translation of scientific and philosophical deeds from scholars all over the world, including the workings of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers. In medicine, Al-Zahrawi, also known as Albucasis, made really important contributions to the past by designing groundbreaking operative tools and techniques, including the habituation of gut sutures, which revolutionized the theatre of surgery [3] . The contributions and advancements of the Islamic Golden Age in STEM have left a lasting impression on Bodoni society.

Islamic scholars have made two important contributions to the fields of uranology and physics, which have helped conform to new science. Al-Battani, also known as Albatenius, was a uranologist who made valuable observations of celestial bodies, including the breakthrough and measurements of the solar apex. [4] Al-Haytham, also known as Alhazen, was an important figure in the apprehension of optics, particularly in the refraction and reflection of light. His Book of Optics is an extremely regarded text in the field. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi made important contributions to trigonometry, including the conception of the Tusi couple, a mathematical device used to simulate one-dimensional motion. These contributions highlight the ingeniousness and genius of Islamic scholars' inward and forward- moving understanding of the harsh world.

Islamic scholars have made substantial contributions to the field of chemistry. Jabir ibn Hayyan, often considered the father of chemistry, pioneered many of the fundamental chemical concepts still in practice today, including the expansion of laboratory apparatus, distillation, and purification. [5] Meanwhile, Al-Kindi, known as the philosopher of the Arabs, contributed largely to the evolution of chemical substances and processes. He wrote extensively on the properties of a variety of substances such as minerals, metals, and drugs, laying the basis for future research. The contributions of these scholars march the breadth and depth of Islamic knowledge inward STEM fields and its work on science.

Islamic scholars' experience made very important contributions to the theatre of engineering, particularly in the areas of mechanics and automation. One notable contribution is that of Al-Jazari, who intentionally designed technical devices for various purposes such as water supply, transport, and entertainment. [6] His book, The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, showcased his innovative designs and machines. Islamic architecture is another area where technology has flourished, with the expression of structures such as the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Alhambra in Spain, to name a few. These

architectural marvels reflect the sophisticated technological techniques used during the Islamic Golden Age and uphold modern-day architects and engineers. The impact of Islamic scholars in STEM fields is undeniable, and their contributions and experience directly influenced many of today's scientists, researchers, and engineers. From medicine to uranology and beyond, their innovations and discoveries have helped form our discernment of the world and its workings. [7] Recognizing the contributions of Islamic scholars to STEM emphasizes the force of inclusion and diversity inward and forward knowledge and defining our world. It is imperative to fete their impact, realize their legacy, and process towards creating a more inclusive STEM community.

In conclusion, Islamic scholars have made important contributions to the development of STEM fields through their ingenious and pioneering works. From the contributions of betimes Islamic scholars to the advancements in science, mathematics, and medicine during the Islamic Golden Age, these scholars have left an unbelievable legacy. It is indispensable to realize and appreciate their contributions to STEM, both for their historical importance and their continued influence on modern-day science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.

References

[1] https://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/feb/01/islamic-science

[2] https://muslimheritage.com/origins-islamic-science/

[3] https://jis.cis-ca.org/

[4] https://www.britannica.com/biography/al-Khwarizmi

[5] https://archive.org/details/ventureofislamco00hodg/page/233

[6] https://books.google.nl/books?id=_AUtLNtg3nsC&pg=PA3&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false

[7] https://faseb.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1096/fj.06-0803ufm

[8] https://www.newscientist.com/people/muhammad-ibn-musa-al-khwarizmi/

[9] https://ampeduplearning.com/muslim-contributions-to-later-civilizations-assessments/

[10] https://mrcoachholmes.weebly.com/uploads/3/7/8/0/37801281/sswh5d_contributions_of_islamic_scholars_mini-lecture.pdf

Flashing lights, extravagant firework shows, and shouts from fans all over the world echoing throughout the stadium, at the centre of which stands a man adorned in a traditional Arab bisht, raising the most prestigious prize in the world of football. This seemingly faraway memory from the 18th of December 2022 was the scene plastered over TVs worldwide for over 1.5 billion people to watch after a month defined by a bittersweet mixture of decade-long pushback, unforgettable competition, and surpassing expectations. However, the complex tale of the World Cup in Qatar started long before 2022, detailing the strategic ways in which the much-beloved sporting event was used to create a favorable image of the state on the international stage.

Despite the frenzy caused by the event from its very beginning, such as Saudi Arabia's shocking victory against Argentina, Morocco’s historic run, and Infantino’s much-quoted press conference, concerns over how and why Qatar received the green light to host the World Cup loomed over the heads of fans and critics throughout the course of the competition, raising both eyebrows and questions. The unfortunate timing of Qatargate being unveiled in the European Parliament just a few weeks into the World Cup was only the cherry on top in the grand scheme of things. And yet, the hosts enjoyed unexpected positive press in spite of a rocky start, both from Western news agencies and attendees. In the span of a month, over a million visitors famliarised themselves with the lavishness, hospitality and high spirits of the Gulf state, all while reports and accusations of human rights abuses hung overhead.

With that being said, it must be noted that the means and the 12 years it took to benefit from hosting such a prestigious event are permeated with controversy, conflict, and corruption. The typical news coverage of the 2022 World Cup consisted of videos of scored goals and stadiums full of lively fans, followed by discussions on bribery, migrant worker exploitation, and the prohibition of homosexuality in the host state. The starting point for this scrutiny was when U.S. prosecutors revealed details about how Qatari media executives had allegedly paid five members of FIFA’s top board ahead of the 2010 vote to guarantee their spot as the host—a story so intriguing that it had become a central theme in a Netflix documentary on FIFA’s tainted history. The 2022 World Cup organisers adamantly denied these allegations, on top of being taunted by widespread criticism from human rights groups over the mistreatment of South Asian migrant workers by failing to uphold humane working conditions when building the new stadiums, resulting in the deaths of over 6,000 people. Eventually, Qatar had succumbed to certain parts of the international outrage, in particular by NGOs, in the lead up to the tournament as it officially eliminated restrictions on workers’ rights to enter and exit its territories without permission from employers. The football pitch itself extended into a political and moral battleground as team captains of multiple European teams were discouraged from wearing "OneLove" armbands, raising concerns over freedom of expression and compatibility with certain standards for tolerance and human rights.

With that being said, some critics across the Arab world argued that much of the criticism was set in upholding negative stereotypes about the Middle East, with Infantino going so far as to denounce the "hypocrisy" and "racism" from countries he considered to be moralising over the Middle East nation's human rights record.

This begs the question of why a Gulf state with immense resources and one of the highest incomes per capita in the world would willingly put itself in the spotlight, vulnerable to scrutiny. Mounting criticism meant that the hosts would be viewed through a pragmatic lens throughout the tournament, a reality that Qatar utilised by achieving the global recognition it desperately sought through building their reputation as a reliable international player and partner by hosting sporting events. The success of the event was especially crucial for Doha as an aspiring force to be reckoned with in the region, prior to the lifting of the blockade imposed on it by its neighbours. It is worthwhile to mention that hosting the 2022 World Cup in Qatar significantly impacted the region's football infrastructure and instituted a lasting sporting legacy, making the country synonymous with luxury after they had poured a staggering $220 billion into the competition, the aftermath of which marked a 157% surge in tourism.

It is clear to see that Doha has successfully enhanced its international profile through sports diplomacy and reaped the benefits of hosting the costly event, even with the mixed opinions of fans and critics reminiscing a year later. It had additionally opened a door for sports fans to discover more of what the region has to offer—an example of sports diplomacy in action. NGOs such as Amnesty International remain vocal about Qatar’s continuing failure to remedy abuses faced by migrant workers and adequately protect them from labour exploitation; unfortunately, with Qatar out of the spotlight, discussions on the rights of workers have faded, and memories of the sport itself have overshadowed the more worrying aspects of what it took to host an event people can reminisce on for years to come.

Sources:

https://www.fifa.com/tournaments/mens/worldcup/qatar2022/news/one-month-on-5-billion-engaged-with-the-fifa-world-cup-qatar-2022-TM

https://www.espn.co.uk/football/story/_/id/38919896/one-year-2022-fifa-world-cup-changed-qatar

https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230904-qatar-post-world-cup-sees-157-surge-in-tourism/

https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/18/sports/soccer/qatar-world-cup-host.html

https://www.irreview.org/articles/qatar-fifa-2022-world-cup-a-game-of-sports-diplomacy-mixed-with-international-scrutiny

https://cirs.qatar.georgetown.edu/the-impact-of-the-lifting-of-the-blockade-on-the-qatar-world-cup/

https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/11/qatar-inaction-by-qatar-and-fifa-a-year-on-from-the-world-cup-puts-legacy-for-workers-in-peril/

Palestine:

Ya Taleen Aljabal “O Those Going Up the Mountain”:

Most famously sung by Palestinian artist Rola Azar, a prominent Palestinian singer who has produced many nationalistic songs.

It's a song known as a ‘Tarweedah’, a unique style of Palestinian singing which involves masking individual words with additional syllables.

This style was created by Palestinian women who wanted to convey secret messages to loved ones held captive by Israel.

Other notable examples:

Ahd Allah Ma Nerhal- translates to “By the Promise of God, We Won’t Leave”

Dammi Falastini- translates to “My Blood is Palestinian”

Yamma Mweil El Hawwa- translates to “Oh Mother, What’s with the Wind?”

Harb al Shaware- translates to “Street War”.

Zahrat al Madaen- translates to “The Rose of Cities”

Iraq:

Ya Gaa Trabej Kafoori- “O Earth, Your Soil is my Camphor”:

Written by the famous Iraqi poet Kadim Ismail Al-Katii, and sung during the eight-year Iraq-Iran war in the 1980’s.

Like many Iraqi songs, its poignant lyrics originated from poetry, and music was later composed for it.

A song which exemplifies the spirit of Iraqi unity and nationalism, and has since been used in the wars which followed- and even sounds across the streets of Baghdad during protests to this day.

Other notable examples:

Marhaba Ya Maarek Almaseer- translates to “Welcome O’ Destined Battle”

Lahat Ruoos Alherab- translates to “The Spearheads Loomed”

Yumma Yumma- translates to “Oh Mother, Oh Mother”

Daimeen o Daim Watanee Beekom- translates to “Always and Forever, My Homeland is With You”

Hatha El Fares- translates to “This Knight”

Lebanon:

Nahna Al Thowra Wel Ghadab- “We are the Revolution and Anger”:

Sung by the famous Lebanese singer Julia Boutrous, nicknamed “The Voice of the Revolution”.

This song is a symbol of Lebanese resistance, and is commonly used to ignite nationalism and strengthen Lebanese spirits during many wars.

Her songs are so powerful that they've gained traction elsewhere, most notably, Palestine.

It’s for this very reason that the Israeli Government bestowed upon her the title of “The Voice of War”.

Other notable examples:

Reshou Alfel Alaskar Tal- translates to “Toss the Flowers on the Army”

Al Haq Selahi- translates to “Rightness is my Weapon”

Bhebek Ya Lebnan- translates to “I Love You, O Lebanon”

Ghabat Shams Al Haq- translates to “The Sun of Rightness has Set”

Moukawem- translates to “Resistant”

Egypt:

A’sh Elly Al- “Long Live the One Who Said”:

Sung by the famous Egyptian singer Abdel Halim Hafez, known as the “Black Nightingale” for his distinct voice.

The words of this song were written by the poet Mohammed Hamza, and it came to be a poignant song for the October War- or the Arab-Israeli War.

A song which exemplifies the strength and united spirit of the Egyptians.

Other notable examples:

Sabah El Kheir Ya Sinaa- translates to “Good Morning O Sinai”

Sout Al Hurria- translates to “The Voice of Freedom”

Ya El Medan- translates to “Oh the (Tahrir) Square”

Sameina Ou Adeina- translates to “We Named and Counted”

Abarna El Hazima- translates to “We Passed the Defeat”

Syria:

Hanen Lel Hurieh Hanen- “Yearning for Freedom”:

Most famously sung by Syrian Revolutionary Abdel Basset Al-Sarout, the voice of the 2011 Syrian Revolution.

The song is an ode to a people yearning for freedom, from decades of unending oppression under a tyrannical regime.

Al-Sarout became a revolutionary symbol due to his unique and powerful voice, which left millions of Syrians inspired.

Other notable examples:

Jannah Ya Wattana- translates to “Paradise O our Homeland”

Tayeb Itha Ma Nerjaa, Touedna Tesmaana?- translates to “Alright if We Don't Return, Promise You'll Hear Us?

Ou Ana Talei Atthahar- translates to “And I’ve Come to Protest”

The Arabs:

It's important to note that many Arab nations share different songs and melodies. So it's common to find a melody from an Iraqi song, used for a Syrian Revolutionary song. Or a Lebanese war song, used for protests by Palestinians. This shared culture culminates in many songs of united Arab Nationalism.

Notable examples:

Al Hilm Al Araby- translates to “The Arab Dream”

Labaika Ya Alam Al Urooba- translates to “I’ve Answered Your Call, O Symbol of Arabs”

Al-Watan Al Akbar- translates to “The Bigger Homeland”

1 Introduction

The annals of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region bear witness to a profound history

of anti-colonial resistance, where the narrative is not only a tale of physical struggles but also a battle

of perceptions. Colonial occupiers often labeled these resilient figures as terrorists or rebels, while the

people, inspired by their quest for freedom, saw them as symbols of resistance. This article delves

into key instances, providing detailed historical context and exploring how these nuanced narratives

shaped the legacies of anti-colonial movements across the MENA region, drawing parallels with global

figures such as Nelson Mandela.

2 Omar Mukhtar and the Libyan Resistance (1911-1931)

Omar Mukhtar, known as the ”Lion of the Desert,” led the Libyan resistance against Italian colonial

rule. Between 1911 and 1931, Mukhtar employed guerilla tactics to challenge the Italian forces. The

Italians, feeling threatened by his effectiveness, labeled him a rebel leader, but for Libyans, Mukhtar

represented the embodiment of their struggle for independence. The stark contrast between the Italian

characterization of rebellion and the Libyan perception of a fight for national sovereignty underscores

the power dynamics inherent in anti-colonial resistance.

3 Egypt’s Nationalist Movements (Early to Mid-20th Century)

Egypt’s resistance against British occupation manifested in various nationalist movements, including

the Muslim Brotherhood and leaders like Saad Zaghloul. Branded as rebels by the British, these

groups resonated with the aspirations of the Egyptian people for self-determination. The early to

mid-20th century witnessed a complex interplay between colonial powers and local movements, with

the British employing strategies to suppress anti-colonial sentiments while Egyptians sought to assert

their right to govern themselves. This historical context illuminates the intricacies of the struggle for

independence.

4 Algeria’s War of Independence (1954-1962)

The Algerian War of Independence, led by the National Liberation Front (FLN) against French colonial

rule, represents a pivotal moment in anti-colonial resistance. Accused of terrorism by the French

government, the FLN sought to overturn decades of oppression. While the French authorities aimed

to suppress the FLN’s activities by branding them as terrorists, the Algerian people viewed them as

champions of their right to self-determination. This stark divergence in perceptions encapsulates the

ideological battle embedded in the struggle for independence, echoing sentiments seen in other parts

of the region.

5 Morocco, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon

Abd el-Krim’s leadership during the Rif War in Morocco stands as another poignant example of anti-

colonial resistance. The Berber leader, labeled a rebel by Spanish and French forces, became a symbol

of defiance for Moroccans seeking autonomy. In Iraq, uprisings during the British mandate were

portrayed as rebellions, concealing the populace’s yearning for sovereignty. Similarly, the Syrian and

Lebanese resistance against French rule faced characterizations of rebellion, highlighting the discord

between colonial narratives and indigenous perspectives.

6 Global Parallels: Nelson Mandela and Anti-Apartheid Struggle

Drawing parallels with global anti-colonial figures, Nelson Mandela’s fight against apartheid in South

Africa resonates with the MENA region’s struggles. Like Mukhtar, Mandela faced accusations of

terrorism by the apartheid regime, yet he remains a symbol of resistance against oppression and an

international emblem of the struggle for freedom.

7 Conclusion

As we reflect on these instances of anti-colonial resistance in the MENA region, the terms ”terrorist”

and ”rebel” emerge as contested labels wielded by colonial powers. The intricate historical contexts

and global parallels with figures like Nelson Mandela reveal the profound complexities of these struggles

for independence. These narratives, rich with details, contradictions, and global connections, continue

to shape the region’s contemporary identity, challenging simplistic categorizations and asserting an

enduring quest for freedom. Furthermore, this relates to many current events in the MENA region

and around the world. Which begs many questions to be asked: who are the real terrorists? and how

we define them? what is the difference between violence by freedom fighters resisting their (settler)

colonial oppressor and the colonial occupation aggression? and can we really equate and compare both

the violence of the oppressed and the oppressor?

WATERMELON

The Palestinian flag was banned after the Six-day War in 1967, which lead to people being a lot more creative in their resistance

In the 1980s, artists in Ramallah were arrested for incorporating the colors of the Palestinian flag in their artwork. The Israeli chief of police made these artists stop making them.

Which led to the watermelon becoming the symbol for Palestinian resistance; since the watermelon encapsulates all four colors of the Palestinian flag: red, green, black, white.

Even holding or eating a watermelon in public in Palestine was viewed as a form of protest.

KEFFIYEH

Originally, the Palestinian Keffiyeh was worn by farmers in order to protect themselves from the harsh desert environment. As it was woven from cotton, it protected them from the weather while also being light enough for them to work in.

The scarf then turned into a symbol for high ranking men in Palestine, but is now a symbol for activism and solidarity with Palestinian people and their liberation.

There are three patterns on the keffiyeh

Olive branches - showing strength, resilience and perseverance

Fishnet - connection between Palestinian sailors and the Mediterranean Sea

Bold lines - trade route lines going through Palestine (Silk lines)

Now the Keffiyeh is also worn as a sign of protest against Israel.

KEY

After Palestinians were expelled from their homes during the Nakba, they kept their (house) keys as proof of ownership of their homes. Hoping for return, the Palestinians saved their keys in hopes that one day they would be able to return.

To this day, keys have been (and continue to be) passed down from generation to generation as a symbol for resistance and the enforcement of their right to return.

Keys are often held (as cardboard cut-outs for instance) during protests as a form of resistance to the fact that Palestinians are unable to return to their houses.

OLIVE BRANCH

Since 1967, more than eight-hundred thousand olive trees, some of which had been planted for centuries, were uprooted from Palestinian territories.

The endurance of the olive tree has served as a symbol for Palestinian resistance. The Islamic principles of ‘steadfastness’ (sumud) and ‘return’ (a’wda) are reflected in the characteristics of the olive tree.

Sumud is represented in the olive tree’s firmness and loyalty which is exhibited by its physical features.

A’wda is depicted in the olive tree’s ability to never give up on Palestinian resistance.

The olive tree also represents continuity.

Mahmoud Darwish, an iconic Palestinian poet and author, who often dedicated his work to the Palestinian cause, wrote a very popular quote on olive trees which goes to show their significance to Palestinian culture.

“If the olive trees knew the hands that planted them, their oil would become tears”

SOURCES

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinian_resistance_and_watermelons

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinian_key

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinian_keffiyeh#:~:text=The%20Palestinian%20keffiyeh%20

https://truthout.org/articles/the-story-of-palestines-colonization-and-resistance-is-embodied-in-the-trees/

https://www.aljazeera.com/news/longform/2023/11/20/palestine-symbols-keffiyeh-olive-branch-watermelon

https://hyperallergic.com/666111/how-watermelon-became-a-symbol-of-palestinian-resistance/

https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/the-uprooting-of-life-in-gaza-and-the-west-bank#:~:text=Since%201967%2C%20more%20than%20eight,Jihad%20militants%20and%20seizing%20weapons.

https://honisoit.com/2020/05/the-olive-tree/

The endless tensions and crises in the modern day MENA region, can be traced back to the events which catalysed the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1922. Although for decades, the Empire maintained a steady decline on many fronts, it was a series of relentless betrayals and broken promises which catapulted the Empire into oblivion, replacing it with a strategically carved out map of a new Middle East- courtesy of the British Empire.

Towards the end of the 19th century, Western focus dramatically shifted from the colonial projects in Africa, to the prospects of economic gain from the Middle East. Greatness appeared to loom on the horizon for the region, in the wake of the discovery of the newest most valuable global currency- oil. This riled up European interest and involvement in the region. However, the united front of the Ottoman Empire seemed a daunting obstacle for the Europeans to overcome, and it became evidently clear that in order to gain control over the strategic region and its resources, it had to be broken down into divided smaller entities. The key to creating a divide came in the form of nationalism- if the Turks and Arabs ignited the flame of nationalistic ideals respectively, then the empire would be almost completely on a self-destructive path. However the British and French, who were perhaps the most interested in the region at the time, had understood that despite the declining state of the empire, the Arabs and Turks maintained a relatively strong brotherhood and a loyalty to the empire encompassing them. Thus it was of dire importance to plant the seeds of suspicion, doubts and frustration into the minds of either side. The two-pronged approach seemed to involve encouraging nationalistic movements whilst simultaneously convincing the Arabs and Turks that they were better off being separated.

Despite French involvement, the clear orchestrators of operations in the region were the British.

Colonel Thomas Edward Lawrence, better known as Lawrence of Arabia, would come to have

a pivotal role in creating the Arab revolts. Lawrence of Arabia is considered a controversial

figure to say the least, with the British hailing him a brave hero, and Arabs being divided into

those who consider him an Arab patriot, and those who found him to be cunning and deceitful.

Initially deployed in Egypt, Lawrence worked on inspiring the spirit of nationalism amongst

the Arabs in every region he travelled to. His ideas of Arab greatness and independence

were inspiring, especially considering that the Arabs were simultaneously being told that the

Turks were taking advantage of them and that they alon profited from the Empire, leaving

nothing for the Arabs to gain. He was incredibly charismatic and was known for swapping out

his army uniform for traditional Arab bedouin attire, which allowed him to appeal greatly to the

Arabs. It soon became difficult to ignore the ideas of Arab independence which transcended through the region, and many Arabs were inspired and ready to take on this fight for freedom. In that sense, Lawrence and the British had succeeded. But the reality was that the greater majority of Arabs maintained steady loyalty towards the Empire, and were simply not interested in the proposals of the British. Despite this, rising nationalism attracted the intrigue of  Sharif Hussein Bin Ali, the Emir of Hijaz, and this intrigue would come to be pivotal for the future of the region.

Hijaz was the name given to parts of modern day Saudi-Arabia, namely the Western part containing the two jewels of the Islamic world- Mecca and Medina. It was the significance of the area in Islam, which gave its ruler so much power under the Ottoman Empire. Thus when the British understood that they could use Sharif Hussein as an ally in their schemes, it didn't matter anymore that the majority of Arabs were uninterested in independence, as they hoped his power and influence would be enough. Very quickly, the British proposed a promise to Hussein in a series of infamous letters known as the McMahon-Hussein Correspondence, that in exchange for mobilising and fighting with the British against the Ottoman Turks, he would be given an independent, united Arab State to rule. This proposal was very persuasive, as it placed him at the forefront of a new Arab dynasty which he could then pass down to his heirs. It seemed the perfect scenario, he would be able to unite the Arabs away from the Ottoman Turks and their control, and quite soon he made his agreement known to the British- the operation was now officially underway.

The Arab Revolt began in 1916, and placed at its head in Arabia, was T.E Lawrence. Well versed in military strategies, Lawrence became renowned for his guerilla fighting teachings which allowed the Arabs to capitalise on their advantages when facing a more structured Turkish army. He was initially sent to the heart of the revolt after Sharif Hussein was unable to ignite full-scale fighting. What he found when he arrived were guerilla naturals, who were only in need of funding and weaponry. It's very difficult to reference all the events of the Arab Revolt- that would require an entire separate Article. But to keep it very brief, Hussein and Lawrence worked closely to use whatever support they had, and extremely specialised strategies to fight and eventually defeat the Ottomans in October of 1918- Although Medina would not be surrendered until 1919. However it was during fighting that Sharif Hussein would begin to discover the British and French were not merely encouraging Arab nationalism, but that they had ulterior motives. It's also important to note that the Young Turk Revolt inspired many of these events, and weakened the Ottoman unity in the Turkish region, making it easier for the Arabs to garner their victory.

Unbeknownst to the Arabs, was the Sykes-Picot Agreement concluded in 1916, the same

year that the revolt began. The treaty was drawn up between Mark Sykes and

Francois Picot, respectively on behalf of Britain and France. The key was that it was

a secret agreement, with the Arabs having no knowledge of it. Part of the reason

why Lawrence of Arabia was considered a traitor at the end of his time, was because

he knew of the agreement, but did not disclose it to the Arabs he worked so closely with.

Essentially this agreement was drawn up between France and Britain in order to

partition the Arab territories into areas for each nation to control. It was a direct

contradiction to what the British had promised Sharif Hussein, and to Lawrence,

seemed an utter betrayal of the trust which the Arabs instilled in him. The following year

the Balfour declaration was announced, which effectively promised the creation of a

Jewish State on land known at the time as Palestine. These actions demonstrated clearly that the British intention all along was to obtain effective control over the region and expand their colonial prospects. Following WWI, this agreement was replaced by the San Remo agreement, alongside mandate policies for each of the newly divided regions. This would be the start of British and French de facto control over the region through puppet leaders and governments, whose positions of power relied on approval by their European counterparts- a concept still prevalent in the region today.

Sharif Hussein remains a controversial figure for the part he played in aiding the British to effectively divide

and conquer the Middle-East. His sons were deposited as leaders of the newly drawn up nations, whilst

the British had sent him into exile in Cyprus. The betrayal by the British was said to have had a stark

effect on Hussein, who was both embarrassed and heartbroken that his dreams of an Arab nation were

destroyed. As his health deteriorated, he was allowed to go to Amman where one of his sons ruled,

and where he would soon after pass away. But decades later, his legacy lives on as the man who

destroyed Arab unity through naive trust and pursuit of glory. His son Abdullah was made ruler of Jordan,

whilst Faisal was placed as ruler of Iraq. Faisal’s monarchy in Iraq would end only after its third King,

after he was brutally excecuted during a violent coup d’etat. Whereas the Jordanian monarchy

started by Abdullah continues to thrive into the twenty first century. Other notable families became

the Al-Saud family of modern day Saudi-Arabia, who launched an attack on Hussein and garnered control

over the area, deposing him of his role as Caliph, and leaving him to be exiled by the British.

With these key historical events in mind, the endless crises of the region can come as no surprise. Whether its issues of territorial control which arose after the British-French partitioning, or simply an inability for Arab leaders to act without prior approval by the West, its clear that the events of over a century ago continue to affect the region. Thus it comes as no surprise that many Arabs to this day hold immense resentment against the British and French, who carved up their lands, stole their artefacts and resources, and most notably, their freedom. Many Arabs consider that until each Arab nation removes the shackles of control placed on them by the West by standing against their demands, freedom will not truly be achieved. This inability to act is evident more than ever as the events continue to unfold in Gaza. Arab leaders have been exposed in an unprecedented manner, to be weak in the face of any Western pressure. Outside of finding synonyms for expressing their condemnations, they are completely paralysed by Western control and a fear of losing their own, Western indorsed, positions of leadership. All of these issues unequivocally stem from the British betrayal of the Arabs, and this theme of treason seems to have transcended into today, in the form of the Arab leaders.

​

Sources:

https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2016/6/10/the-arab-revolt-a-war-of-unintended-consequences#:~:text=Encouraged%20by%20the%20British%2C%20the,revolt%20against%20the%20Ottoman%20Turks.

https://www-jstor-org.proxy-ub.rug.nl/stable/26098245?seq=2

https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2008/2/4/a-warrior-of-arabia

https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/who-was-lawrence-of-arabia

https://balfourproject.org/a-desert-uprising-that-began-in-hope-but-was-doomed-to-end-in-betrayal/

https://www.jstor.org/stable/45197139

https://www.historynet.com/creating-chaos-lawrence-of-arabia-and-the-1916-arab-revolt/ 

https://interactive.aljazeera.com/aje/2016/sykes-picot-100-years-middle-east-map/index.html 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Revolt#:~:text=This%20series%20of%20events%20is,as%20such%2C%20under%20Hussein's%20control. 

https://www.history.com/news/ottoman-empire-fall

https://belleten.gov.tr/tam-metin/1948/eng 

https://www.reviewofreligions.org/24721/hashimite-arab-revolt/

https://www.worldfuturefund.org/Reports/Imperialism/britainlies.html

https://www.the-map-as-history.com/History-of-Middle-East-20th-century/oil-in-the-middle-east#:~:text=Ever%20since%20oil%20was%20first,relations%20with%20the%20Middle%20East.

On the 22nd of november, 1943, Lebanon gained its independence from the French mandate over the country. This year marks its 80th anniversary of independence. 

​

The concept of independence in Lebanon is often seen through a Western-centric lens as Lebanon

has been occupied by various civilizations over millennia, including Greeks, Romans, Arabs, and

Ottomans. One could say, Lebanon has gained “independence” many times before. 

​

In fact, Lebanon is an old historical country as it contains some of the oldest cities; one of which,

Byblos, is where writing was first created. 

​

From 1920 until World War II, France occupied Lebanon, but lost influence when France was invaded by Germany in 1940. 

The Lebanese, seeing the defeat of their occupiers, started to demand independence, which led to elections in 1943 with the Lebanese Nationalist Party winning. 

​

Soon after, their leader Bechara El Khoury became the first president, formed a government and declared the independence of Lebanon. As a result, he, and his fellow cabinet members were arrested and put in jail in the Rashaya castle. 

International outcry and domestic protests led to their release 11 days later, the 22nd of

November, which is now considered Lebanon’s independence day. 

​

The independence from France marked the official and internationally recognized

formation of Lebanon as a modern sovereign state. It played a crucial role in establishing

Lebanon's place in international relations and global politics. 

With the exception of the 11 days of prison for the first independent government of

Lebanon, the handover of power was peaceful, and up to today, the political ties between

France and Lebanon remain strong. 

​

Most Lebanese people are fluent in French, and it is one of the three main languages spoken in Lebanon, alongside Arabic and English. 

​

French literature, music and food are still highly valued in Lebanon, and many youth continue their higher education in France.

​

​

​

Sources:

ما هو عيد الاستقلال في لبنان- موضوع

التاريخ والثقافة

A century on: Why Arabs resent Sykes-Picot

Lebanon - French Mandate, Mediterranean, Phoenicians | Britannica

The Sudanese spirit, culture, and compassion have endured significant challenges over time. Positioned as a crossroads between the cultural traditions of Africa and the Mediterranean, Sudan, in theory, offers a harmonious blend of both worlds. Despite its potential as a thriving hub for tourism and tranquillity due to its rich culture, heritage and resources, Sudan finds itself in the throes of a civil war, with the global community largely turning a blind eye to the suffering of its people. The nation has grappled with a complex history of coups and uprisings, worsening since 2019, while the international community remains largely passive.

The ongoing civil strife is a power struggle between the armed forces aligned with Gen Abdel Fattah Al-Burhan, the de facto leader since the ousting of the dictatorial leader Omar al-Bashir, and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) under Gen Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, also known as Hemedti. Al-Bashir initially formed the RSF to quell rebellion in Darfur resulting from socio-economic and political marginalisation by the central government, and then formalised the group in 2013. This unit was subsequently deployed in multiple missions to suppress uprisings and take part in ongoing wars in Yemen and Libya. The collaboration between regular military forces and the RSF led to the removal of Al-Bashir in 2019, with the intention of transitioning to a democratic civilian-led government. Unfortunately, a coup in October 2021 disrupted this process, escalating tensions into the full-blown war witnessed today.

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The civil conflict has triggered a surge in accusations of sexual abuse and violence by paramilitary forces, particularly in the Darfur region. RSF's advancement has led to the capture of Darfur's state capitals, leaving civilians in fear. Reports from aid workers and witnesses detail mass crimes, including sexual violence, torture, and killings, primarily targeting the Masalit ethnic group. The toll is staggering, with 10,400 casualties and 23 million people requiring urgent aid, comprising half of Sudan's population. Exploiting the vulnerable situation, the RSF has enslaved individuals, subjecting them to dehumanizing conditions, including forced sexual acts for basic necessities like food and water. Children, women and men have all been subjected to such circumstances and conditions, from flogging to enslavement in brothels, with people being sold and exchanged for prices as low as just $10.

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Since the 2019 uprising, civilian demands for military oversight and integration of the RSF into regular armed forces have been consistent. Civilians also seek the relinquishment of lucrative military holdings in various industries, a key source of power for the army. However, these demands are overshadowed by the escalating violence, displacing masses and silencing voices.

Complicating the prospect of a democratic civilian-led government is the geopolitical exploitation of Sudan's strategic location and agricultural wealth by countries such as the UAE, Russia, the US, and Saudi Arabia. These nations vie for influence, each with its own objectives. While some see Sudan's transition as an opportunity to counter fundamentalist Islamist influence, the grave human rights violations in Sudan are often overlooked.

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The crimes committed by the RSF, coupled with the hardships faced by the Sudanese people and the regional implications of the conflict in the MENA region, demand attention. The global community cannot allow major powers to treat the lives of Sudanese people as mere collateral damage, nor can they themselves be complicit by not raising awareness about this massive humanitarian crisis that Sudan currently faces.

Sources:

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/27/sudan-conflict-why-is-there-fighting-what-is-at-stake

https://edition.cnn.com/2023/11/16/africa/sudan-investigation-rsf-enslavement-intl-cmd/index.html

https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/90382

https://www.britannica.com/place/Sudan

Introduction 

The recent escalation of violence in the Israeli-Palestinian ‘Conflict’ raises once again the specter and fear of mass forced migration and displacement. This is a story that is all too common and shared by millions of Palestinians, a story of ethnic cleansing, deportations, migrations, and the hope of return, and it is a crucial aspect that we need to understand to fully comprehend the tragedy that is unfolding and perhaps grasp ways in which we can solve it. 

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Why Diaspora? 

The origins of the Palestinian diaspora were caused by specific historical events, paired with long-term policies and processes. This has led to the dispossession of a whole people, and the creation of a diaspora around the globe, but this occurred due to factors outside of Palestinians and which constitutes a historic crime against an entire people.

The major events of this history are: 

● The Nakba of 1948 = Catastrophe of 1948, the defining trauma of Palestinian history, wherethrough a combination of executions, arrests, raids, and other violent means undertaken under Plan Dalet, Zionist militias ethnically cleansed Palestine in the forerun to the establishment of the State of Israel, leading to the expulsion of around 750,000 Palestiniansfromtheir homes. 

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● Establishment of the UNRWA =In the aftermath of the 1948Arab-IsraeliWar, theUNestablishesthe United Nations Relief and WorksAgency for Palestine Refugeesin theNear Eastto provide assistance and human development to Palestinian refugees in the MENA region. The UNRWA has grown into a massive subpart of the UN that employs around 30,000 people, manages and oversees around 68 refugee camps, and is tasked with helping a staggering 5.6 million Palestinian refugees as of 2019. 

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● The Casablanca Protocol agreement or set of standards reached by members of the Arab League on the 11th of September 1965, which attempted to regularize the legal protections of Palestinian refugees throughout the Arab world. It attempted to ensure rights of movement, abode, and work in resident

countries due to an existent lack of enforcement but was applied unevenly and became effectively revoked in 1991. 

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● Six Day War (1967) = A further 280,000 to 325,000 Palestinians were displaced and forcefully left Palestine in the Naksa-“Setback”, which saw Israel reach its territorial height, and begin the organized zionist settlement of the West Bank, despite protests by even the Israeli government under Levi Eshkol. 

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● Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990) = Throughout the Lebanese Civil War Palestinians found themselves victims of extreme violence, such as during the Battle of the Camps. Furthermore, tensions in the country were amplified by violence against Palestinians in other countries such as Jordan in 1970, and internally with the horrific Sabra and Shatilla Massacresin in 1982. 

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● Syrian Civil War (2011-Present) = Palestinians have been victims and casualties during the Syrian Civil War with many seeking refuge in Europe alongside millions of other refugees from the country. The civil war and its consequences are always Palestinian communities now exist throughout Western Europe, particularly in Scandinavia. 

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The Palestinian Diaspora Today 

Today, the Palestinian diaspora spans the globe comprising more than a million people-meaning that around 50% of Palestinians are forced to live outside their homeland. The diaspora, while international, remains heavily concentrated in the MENA region. Here are some of the most prominent Palestinian communities across the region: 

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● Israel- 1,427,000 

● Jordan - 634,000 

● Syria - 418,000 

● United Arab Emirates- 350,000 

● Lebanon - 340,000 

● Saudi Arabia - 280,000 

● Qatar- 56,000 

● Kuwait- 43,000 

● Egypt- 30,000 to 100,000 

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Despite this concentration, prominent Palestinian communities have been established in unlikely places such as the USA, Chile, and the Nordic countries. Finland is more Palestinian than the whole of France for example:

● United States of America - 310,000 

● Chile - 205,000 

● Denmark - 15,000 

● Sweden - 10,000 

● Finland - 3,500 

● France - 2,000 to 3,000 

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In all of these places, Palestinians have gone on to become well-known figures, playing an active role in society, which is often but not always, defined by struggles for human rights, themes of conflict and peace, and pro-Palestinian advocacy.

Interesting people spanning this diaspora include: 

● Sama (Raena) Alshaibi = Iraqi-Palestinian American artist and photographer whose works principally focus on spaces of conflict; themes such as war, power, exile, and survival feature prominently in her work and Alshaibi often utilizes her body in many of her pieces to represent certain issues or countries. Her parents fled the Nakba of 1948, and afterward, her family moved due to the Iran-Iraq War ending up in Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Jordan before finally settling in the USA in 1986; Alshaibi’sfilms“Goodbyeto the Weapon” and “Where the Birds Fly” deal extensively with this experience. Sama Alshaibi is now a Professor of Photography at the University of Arizona and a Guggenheim Fellow. 

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● José “Pepe” Zalaquett Daher = Chilean-Palestinian human rights lawyer and advocate. Famous for his involvement in the Comité Pro Paz which defended human rights and provided legal counsel and support to detainees and prisoners under the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet.Arrested twice in 1975 by Chilean security forces and then sent into exile. Pepe would not return to Chile till 1986 but would while abroad serve as the head of the international executive committee of Amnesty International. They also served on the National Truth and Reconciliation Commission during Chile’s transition to democracy in the 1990s. Unfortunately passed away on the 15th of March 2020 at the age of 78. 

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● Nasri = Canadian-Palestinian musician, singer, songwriter, and producer and son of Palestinian Christian immigrants from Bethlehem. Helped found and lead the reggae fusion band “MAGIC!” which is best

known for its 2013 international hit ‘Rude’. Also part of the music production duo “The Messengers” which was written and produced by Shakira, LanaDel Ray, Pitbull, and Justin Bieber. (Insert picture in the doc) 

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● Antoine Izméry = Palestino-Haitian businessman and pro-democracy activist.One of the wealthiest men in Haiti who backed its first democratically elected president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, in the 1990 elections. Following the 1991 military coup, Izméry founded the KOMEVEB organization which attempted to restore democratic government and uncover the classified details of the military coup. For thisIzmérywasmurdered by Haitian government paramilitaries on the 11th of September 1993. 

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The Right of Return 

As we have just shown, the rich and diverse subparts of the Palestinian diaspora have each contributed in their ways to new home countries and realities; the diaspora, while shaped by deep historical traumas, has also been a source of strength and identity to millions of Palestinians. However, what does the future hold for the diaspora? 

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Stemming from the famous UN Resolution 194, the central demand of Palestinian organizations and communities, and the entire Palestinian diaspora, remains to this day the ‘Right of Return’; the inviolable right of Palestinians to live in their homeland and move freely throughout. Thisrightisrepresented symbolically by a key, as many Palestinian refugees of the nakba kept a hold of the keys to their homes when they fled, and it serves today as a powerful symbol of the historic injustice that has yet to be undone, atoned for, and rectified. 

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Palestinians are still waiting for their right to return, we must fight so that they wait no longer! 

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Sources: 

● Palestinian diaspora -Wikipedia 

● Palestinian refugees-Wikipedia 

● The Palestinian diaspora and the State-Building Process- Taher Labadi

● Analysis of"PalestiniansWorldwide: ADemographic Study"

● PlanDalet-Wikipedia 

● “The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine” by Ilan Pappe 

● “The Six-DayWar: The Breaking of the Middle East” by Laron

● UNRWA-Wikipedia 

● List ofUnitedNationsresolutionsconcerning Palestine-Wikipedia

● AntoineIzméry -Wikipedia 

● Jean-BertrandAristide-Wikipedia 

● José Zalaquett-Wikipedia 

● SamaAlshaibi -Wikipedia 

● Nasri (musician) -Wikipedia 

● UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly Resolution 194 -Wikipedia

● 1967 Palestinian exodus-Wikipedia 

● Palestinian casualties of war-Wikipedia 

● Keys&the Right of Return - Museum of the Palestinian People

● https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabra_and_Shatila_massacre

● Lebanese CivilWar-Wikipedia 

● https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war

Stereotypical gender-roles and patriarchal structures are an unfortunate aspect of society in the MENA region. Even the portrayal of women in cinema outside the region diminishes from women’s experiences and fails to correctly display their capabilities, ambitions and resilience. Despite this, there are many women who have had a great influence during their time. Whether it be political discourse, women’s rights, or simply inspiring the masses, there have been multiple notable women in the MENA region which still continue to impact people to this day. Ergo, this article will list a few, out of many, women who have impacted, and continue to impact, the MENA region. There will be a focus on women who were active in the entertainment industry in between the 40s and 80s.

Fairouz (1935- present)

For the Arab diaspora, and people within the MENA region, Fairouz is the symbol of hope. Fairouz is a constant; it’s her music that plays on the radio every morning on your way to school. Every other Arab family has her playing on the radio to start their day, or while having their afternoon tea. Hailing from Lebanon, Fairouz was born Nuhad al-Haddad coming from an Arab Christian family. The stage name Fairouz translates to ‘turquoise’ in Arabic. Upon gaining recognition, she composed and wrote music alongside the Rahbani Brothers. Through her unorthodox melodies and tunes, Fairouz captured the attention, and the hearts, of the MENA people. She dedicated music to Palestinians after the Nakba in 1948, titled “Al-Quds” and  “Zahrat Al-Mada’en”, which translates to the Flower of Cities. At the time, and to this day, she connected Arabs all over the world with her music; it was relatable, and provided a sense of hope and security. Further, during the Lebanese civil war (starting in 1975), Fairouz didn’t leave the country, and instead composed music dedicated to the struggles at the time. In her songs, Fairouz spoke to people directly, and appealed to them, again connecting individuals across Lebanon, and the MENA. Her emotions, and storylines touched so many people because they were real. Other than her enrapturing voice and lyricism, Fairouz was a source of inspiration due to her ability to grow and make a name for herself despite being from a small, poor town in Lebanon. It’s safe to say that she has become a cultural icon. With performances all over the MENA region and abroad, Fairouz has cemented herself as a major idol in the entertainment industry in the MENA region. The impact she’s left on people with her music has made her to be one of the greats in MENA culture.

Umm Kulthum (1898-1975)

Umm Kulthum was more than just an artist to the MENA region. Her story begins during the early stages of her life. Since her father was a well-known Imam in the town she lived in, Umm Kulthum spent a lot of her time focusing on religious studies - understanding the Quran, reciting its verses, and learning how to enunciate the words of the Book. Practicing and training in Quranic vocal arts and pronunciation shaped her voice as a performer. It is because of all her practice that she had a remarkable command of the Arabic language. Furthermore, her devotion to religion, and her upbringing played a role in how she impacted the MENA region as an artist and musician. One of her many achievements was the ability to bring together Arabs of different religious backgrounds together. Umm Kulthum’s socio-economic situation prior to gaining popularity proved to people that through hard work and perseverance, a lot can be achieved. Aside from that, she was one of the very few women at the time that was able to influence individuals in the region. Due to the political climate in Egypt at the time, Umm Kulthum devoted songs to the nation. She was involved in political discourse at the time, and thus became more proactive in her music - stating that she will sacrifice herself for Egypt. Speaking out in the way she did allowed her to connect with her audience even further; with so much uncertainty at the time, Umm Kulthum was able to emotionally bond with the people of Egypt. With the Egyptian Revolution taking place shortly after, Umm Kulthum displayed her favor for a coup, and once the political turmoil washed over she was labeled as Egypt’s voice. In a documentary on Umm Kulthum’s story, it was stated that she was like the Great Pyramids of Egypt, “no one can do what she did.” The influence she had on people at the time was unmistakable; her legacy will forever live on. 

Dalida (1933-1987)

You wouldn’t expect a French-Italian model, actress, and singer to be on this list, and yet here we are. Dalida was born and raised in Cairo, Egypt despite being ethnically Italian. At first, Dalida was only known as a model, and kick started her singing career in Paris, France. She put her all into her music and career, so much so that it took away from her private life. Her passion for her job, and maintaining her persona was important to her. Dalida was attached to her time in Egypt, as well as the culture, and the language. Thus, she began making songs in Arabic for Egypt. Through her music, she connected further with Egypt as she demonstrated her love for the country and culture. One example would be, “Ahsan Nas” which was dedicated to the people of Egypt and the different cities of the country. The song displays her appreciation for all the different cultures and traditions within the state. “Helwa Ya Baladi” is the most notable piece she had in Arabic, as it is dedicated to her memories and attachment to Egypt. The song has become a great symbol for Egyptian nationalistic pride, and was sung by thousands of Egyptians who gathered in Tahrir Square during the 2011 Egyptian Revolution.  It’s safe to say that Dalida’s music has left a lasting impression on the MENA region, Egyptians especially.

Warda (1939-2012)

Warda Al-Jazairia (which directly translates to ‘The Algerian Rose’) began her singing career in her father’s cabaret in France named The Tam - Tam. The purpose of the cabaret was to gather the MENA diaspora in one social setting, where they could connect and share ideas. After the Algerian War for independence from French imperialism began, Warda and her family were exiled from France, and thus moved to Lebanon. Once they settled in Beirut, Warda began performing in multiple cabarets only to be recognized by the father of composition in the Middle East at the time, Mohamed Abdel Wahab. Eventually, he took her to Egypt where she met the then-president Gamal Abdel Nasser, who was an influential president who advocated for Arab nationalism. Warda then became part of the line up for an Opera, where she performed alongside with other popular singers at the time. Through these performances, she became a symbol of hope for the Algerian people, who were fighting for liberation from the French. Upon gaining popularity, Warda also starred in films. Her media presence diminished after her marriage to an Algerian man who forbade her from singing and acting. After ten years of marriage, she divorced him and went back to Egypt to continue her career. Divorce was quite taboo at the moment, to say the least, so a lot of women at the time were inspired by Warda and her ability to get through the situation. Warda’s impact on the women within the region is unmistakable; she challenged taboos, stereotypes and how women pursued their careers. 

Faten Hamama (1931-2015)

“Lady of the Arabic Screen”, Faten Hamama was a legend in the entertainment industry during her time. One  of her most famous works was a movie titled “I Want a Solution” where she addressed women’s right to file a divorce, and resulted in the amendment of Egyptian laws at the time. Her roles in movies pushed aside many different taboos for women at the time, heavily advocating for women’s rights within the country. Hamama impacted the system so much that presidents all over the MENA region, past and present, have praised her for talent and her impact. The messages she’s relayed in her movies were often rejected and dismissed by individuals who stick to patriarchal ideologies and disregard women. Regardless, Faten Hamama left behind a legacy in the region which reflected the reality of women’s oppression and their experiences in the MENA region. Named the ‘Star of the Century’ during the Alexandria International Film Festival in 2001, Faten Hamama has left a mark in the history of cinema and women’s rights in the MENA region.

Sources:

https://english.alarabiya.net/life-style/entertainment/2015/03/12/A-look-back-at-the-women-who-impacted-Arab-pop-culture 

• Fairouz

  • https://themarkaz.org/fairouz-is-the-voice-of-lebanon-symbol-of-hope-in-a-weary-land/

  • https://www.britannica.com/biography/Fairouz 

• Umm kolthum 

  • https://www.creativeprocess.info/creative-works-5/umm-kulthum-the-legacy-of-a-female-arab-artist-and-leader#:~:text=Umm's%20ascension%20from%20rags%2Dto,actress%2C%20and%20the%20political%20activist. 

  • https://www.britannica.com/biography/Umm-Kulthum-Egyptian-musician 

• Dalida 

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helwa_ya_baladi#:~:text=%22Helwa%20ya%20baladi%22%20

  • https://www.arabnews.com/node/2176851/lifestyle 

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalida

  • https://theartisteoftheme.wordpress.com/2013/01/05/dalida-ahsan-nas-song-of-the-week/ 

• Warda

  • https://www.newarab.com/opinion/warda-al-jazairia-timeless-algerian-rose

  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warda_Al-Jazairia 

• Faten hamama 

  • https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2015/02/egypt-actress-faten-hamama-women-rights.html

  • https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/40498/6-facts-you-may-not-know-about-legendary-Faten-Hamama