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Cover
Chapter 01: Introduction (Sample)
Chapter 02 Nature of Language
Chapter 03 Grammar: An Overview
Chapter 04 Functional Grammar
Chapter 05 Speech and Writing
Chapter 06 Pragmatics
Chapter 07 Discourse Analysis
Chapter 08 Conversation Analysis
Chapter 09 World Englishes
Chapter 10: Computational Linguisitcs

2023 Introduction to Linguistics 2

Chapter 09 World Englishes

4.1 The background

Linguistics has developed with giving rise to many glorious linguistics schools. Functional grammar is also a famous and influential theory in the history of linguistic development. But before learning it systematically, this section gives the history of linguistics, Formalism vs. Functionalism and Halliday’s Systemic-Functional Grammar to help you learn the theory of Functional Linguistics better.

4.1.1 The history of linguistics

In studying linguistics, it is important to be aware of its origins, the winding path it has traversed, and the significant breakthroughs it has made in different historical periods. Only by doing so can we gain a profound understanding of the questions and theoretical perspectives of contemporary linguists. (Liu, 2002)

The history of linguistics can be traced back to the ancient Greek period. In the 5th to 4th centuries BCE, some renowned Greek philosophers initiated the exploration of language. They were divided into two factions: the naturalists and the conventionalists.

Figure4.1.1: Generated by Padlet

From the dialogue between Cratylus and Hermogenes, we can learn their different viewpoints on language.

Cratylus, representing the naturalist faction, believed that the names of things are derived from their inherent qualities, and thus language naturally carries meaning. For example, words like "neigh," "bleat," "hoot," and "tinkle" imitate the sounds associated with the things they represent. This is known as onomatopoeia.

On the other hand, Hermogenes, representing the conventionalist faction, believed that names refer to things due to conventional agreements made by language users.

In the 3rd BC, after the Roman Empire conquered the Greek city-states, Latin became the official language and became a new focus of study. Then, in 14th Centuries, until the Renaissance, people began to study Hebrew influenced by the Bible. And in 15th Centuries, Age of Exploration, the discovery and colonization of the New World, the opening of new trade routes, increased global trade, and the traditional activities of missionaries further broadened the horizons of linguists, making them realize the diversity and complexity of world languages.

In the 18th century, philosophers and linguists embarked on an exploration of the history and origins of language, attempting to derive universal principles of language development to account for the forms of different languages. This marked the emergence of the highly influential linguistic school known as Historical and Comparative Linguistics. It established linguistics as an independent discipline and laid the foundation for the genealogical classification of world languages.

Figure4.1.2: QR Code for Genealogical Tree

In the 20th century, led by Ferdinand de Saussure, linguistics entered the era of structuralist linguistics. Saussure proposed that language exists as a system of signs, similar to any other system that comprises numerous components. The structuralist school provided comprehensive and in-depth descriptions of language structure, developing a complete set of methods for structural analysis and description. (Liu, 2000)

During this period, three famous schools had a profound impact on the development of linguistics:

Figure4.1.3: The development of linguistics

the Prague School, which emphasised the functional aspect of language symbols, the American Descriptive School, which focused on synchronic description of language facts, and the Copenhagen School, which emphasised the various relationships between language symbols.

However, its limitation became evident as it focused solely on the formal analysis of language structure. So it is necessary to mention the two major trends in contemporary linguistics: formalism and functionalism.

Formalism in linguistics primarily focuses on the structure and properties of formal languages. It is based on Saussure's structuralist theory and flourished under the leadership of scholars such as Chomsky. The renowned "Chomsky revolution" in history sparked a wave of interest in structural grammar. Chomsky's theory of generative grammar remains a significant representative of formalism in modern linguistics. In the late 1960s, functionalism emerged as another influential trend in linguistics. Its advent marked a further expansion of research in the field of linguistics. Functionalism shifted the focus of language research towards language functions and their usage.

4.1.2 Formalism and Functionalism

In the preceding sentence, we refer to structural grammar as formalism and functional grammar as functionalism.

Formalism argues that the central task of linguistics is to investigate the formal relationships between grammatical constituents, without necessarily involving their semantic and pragmatic properties. Both prescriptive grammar and pedagogic grammar are typical manifestations of structural grammar.

In the mid-20th century, Noam Chomsky, an American linguist, proposed the theory of Transformational Generative Grammar, which became a representative model of formalist linguistics. According to Chomsky, traditional grammar theories fail to explain the creativity and infinity of language, hence he introduced this grammar model based on transformation rules.

Figure4.1.4: Avram Noam Chomsky
Download by https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-hk/%E8%AF%BA%E5%A7%86%C2%B7%E4%B9%94%E5%A7%

86%E6%96%AF%E5%9F%BA

In Transformational Generative Grammar, the process of sentence generation is viewed as a series of rule transformations. These rules are applied to transform one linguistic structure (e.g., a sentence) into another, generating different levels of grammatical structure. Transformation rules involve operations such as movement, deletion, and insertion, altering the order and structure of sentence constituents to generate new linguistic expressions. Transformational Generative Grammar emphasizes the universality and underlying structure of language, proposing the concepts of deep structure and surface structure. The deep structure represents the meaning representation of a sentence, while the surface structure represents the grammatical representation. Transformational rules are used to convert the deep structure into the surface structure, thus generating sentences that conform to grammatical rules. The introduction of Transformational Generative Grammar provides a formal framework for understanding language generation and interpretation, and it also forms the basis for applications in fields such as natural language processing and machine translation within the field of computer science.

Video for formalism and functionalism

Functional grammar emerged as an alternative to generative grammar. Functionalism, on the other hand, advocates studying language from a functional perspective, building upon thorough research into language systems and structures. It emphasises the examination of meaning and function of language, the analysis of language use in social contexts, and the relationship between language function and language systems. Functionalism regards language as a social phenomenon and emphasises the investigation of its social functions. This theory has also influenced communicative approaches that aim to develop communicative competence in language learning.

Figure4.1.5: The relationship between formalism and founctionalism

It is worth noting that there is a basic dividing line between formalism and functionalism, but the majority is not antagonistic on all issues.

Formalists are reluctant to have something purely semantic in their syntactic rules and principles, but neither of them denies that semantics and pragmatics are connected with syntax, and neither of them denies that function plays a role in language change, language acquisition, and language use.

Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) was proposed by Michael Halliday and has been influenced by various linguistic schools and theories, not the least of which are representative of structuralism, such as the Prague School.The Prague School of linguistics, particularly the The Prague School of linguistics, particularly the work of Roman Jakobson, influenced Halliday's early thinking. Jakobson's functionalist approach, which emphasised the communicative functions of language, resonated with Halliday's early thinking. Jakobson's functionalist approach, which emphasized the communicative functions of language, resonated with Halliday's ideas on the functional nature of grammar.

Figure4.1.6: Roman Jakobson

Download by https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Jakobson

Video for Roman Jakobson's six functions of language

The ideas of social semiotics that Halliday absorbed in his work on SFG were also influenced by the Copenhagen School. Louis Trolle Hjelmslev, as the founder of the Copenhagen School, viewed language as a purely deductive system, which is built around the smallest constant unit called the "signifier". (Liu, 2002) This view provides a broader framework for analysing how meaning is constructed and transmitted through various semiotic resources, including language.

4.1.3 Systemic-Functional Grammar & Halliday

Michael Alexander Kirkwood Halliday (1925-2018), commonly known as M. A. K. Halliday, was a prominent linguist known for his significant contributions to the fields of systemic functional linguistics and language education. He was born on April 13, 1925, in Leeds, England, and had a remarkable academic career.

The theory of Systemic-Functional Grammar was created originally not based on English but based on Chinese. This was Halliday M.A.K. back in the 1940s was studying Chinese linguistics in China with Wang Li, the top linguists in China at the time. He had to leave China though because of the revolution in 1949 and then 1950 had to leave China go back to England.

Figure4.1.7: M.A.K. Halliday

Download by Download by https://images.app.goo.gl/mMP8eFonhAA5j4STA

But he had started to develop this theory as a way of understanding a Chinese text called The secret history of the Mongols but then later developed the theory in looking at English texts as well and then wrote a textbook Introduction of functional grammar (SFG) which he first wrote in the 1980s and then he wrote three editions. This theory has been very influential and Halliday also has been the most influential linguist in terms of particularly language teaching, translation, any kind of applied stuff because his theory while it's a very full-on theoretical approach just like any other theory. It’s actually useful for things like language teaching, for translation, for editors, for anybody who wants to get more meaning out of language and be able to write better, be able to understand what’s going on in text.

Figure4.1.8: Introduction of functional grammar

Download by https://www.routledge.com/Hallidays-

Introduction-to-Functional-Grammar/Halliday-Matthiessen/p/

book/9781444146608

Figure4.1.9: QR Code for Introduction of functional grammar

4.2.Halliday's view on language

4.2.1.An overview of meta-function

Halliday believes that the nature of language determines people's requirements for language, that is, the functions that language must complete. Despite the ever-changing nature of these functions, we can categorize them into several limited abstract functions,namely “meta-function", which are inherent in various language uses. The meta-function includes three aspects:

4.2.1.1.Ideational function

It refers to the content or idea expressed in an utterance.Language is the reflection of processes and things that exist in the subjective and objective world.

4.2.1.2.Interpersonal function

Language is a meaningful activity of people in society, a means of doing things, and an action. Therefore, one of its functions must be to reflect the relationship between people. This function is responsible for construing social relationships between speakers and listeners. It is concerned with how we use language to interact with others, and how we express our attitudes and feelings towards them (OpenAI,2023).

4.2.1.3.Textual function

The textual function underscores the fact that language is used to organise discourse and create continuity and flow in our texts or in conversations (Bakuuro,2017).

Figure4.2.1 : 3 meta-functions (download from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362761180/figure/fig1/AS:11431281081375461@1661753506303/The-three-metafunctions-of-language-Halliday-1970.png)

By studying language from a functional perspective, Halliday aimed to understand how people use language to create meaning in social contexts and how this meaning is shaped by the social context in which it occurs.

4.2.2.Systemic linguistics

Systemic linguistics has many similarities with other linguistic theories. It not only studies fundamental issues such as the nature, process, and common characteristics of language, but also explores the application of linguistics. Systemic linguistics advocates descriptive grammar and opposes prescriptive grammar (Liu,2002).

Descriptive grammar and prescriptive grammar are two different ways of studying language. Descriptive grammar is a way of describing how speakers and writers actually use language. It focuses on how language is used in real life, rather than prescribing how language should be used. Prescriptive grammar, on the other hand, is a way of specifying rules for the use of language. It involves establishing a set of rules about what is a "correct" or "incorrect" use of language. Prescriptive grammar is often taught in schools and other formal settings as a way to regulate language use and promote clear and consistent communication (OpenAI,2023).

Figure4.2.2: descriptive&prescriptive grammar(AI-generated image)

System linguists believe that there are various methods for studying language and should allow for the debate of different opinions. Their theoretical goal is to make their theory insightful, compact, consistent, and clear. They believe that linguistics should be an independent science and closely related to other disciplines. Systemic linguistics is closest to stratification grammar and tagmemics, and differs the most from transformational-generative grammar.

4.2.3.System and function

Grammarians in SF tradition use system networks to map the available options in a language.Halliday describes systems such as mood, agency, theme, etc. (Halliday,1994). The thematic system includes two functional components: "theme" and "rheme"; The information system includes two functional components: "known information" and "new information".
The selection of language system options in the context of actual situational types is called usage, it is a value concept. The uses of language are ever-changing and difficult to describe one by one, but each semantic system of language can be composed of a limited number of semantic functional components.
Different from the meta-function mentioned earlier, the functions mentioned here are the discrete parts of the formal meaning potential, namely the semantic components that play a specific role in forming a semantic system.“Meaning potential” is a concept in systemic functional linguistics that refers to the potential meaning of language.

4.2.4.Ideational function

4.2.4.1.Transitivity system
Ideational function is mainly achieved through the transitivity system, which represents people's inner and real world experience in several processes.The transitivity system is divided into six process types: material, mental, relational, behavioral, verbal, and existential (OpenAI,2023).

Figure4.2.4.1.1: material process(AI-generated image)

Material process type is "action" process that indicate that an entity does something.

Mental process type is "sensory" process that describe mental activity.

Figure4.2.4.1.2: mental process(AI-generated image)

Figure4.2.4.1.3: relational process(AI-generated image)

Relational process type is associated with verbs of being and having, and is used to describe states and relationships .

Behavioral process type refers to the physiological activity process such as breathing and coughing.

Figure4.2.4.1.4: behavioural process(AI-generated image)

FIgure4.2.4.1.5: verbal process(AI-generated image)

Verbal process type refers to the communication of information through speech.

Existential process type is used to describe the existence of things. In addition, we can also say “There is a problem,” to describe the existence of things that are not physical objects.

Figure4.2.4.1.6: existential process(AI-generated image)

4.2.4.2.Logical and the experiential meta-function

The ideational function is divided into two metafunctions: the logical and the experiential metafunctions (OpenAI,2023).
The logical metafunction is responsible for construing the relationship between things in the world. It is concerned with how things are related to one another, and how they can be grouped together into categories. e.g. The book on the desk.
The experiential metafunction is responsible for construing our experience of the world(Taylor& Morsello,n.d.). It is concerned with how we experience things, and how we represent those experiences in language. e.g. I saw a beautiful flower.

Video4.2.4.2: Ideational functionhttps://youtu.be/5vMmoGi0uoM

4.3. A brief description of functional syntax

Functional grammar is based on systematic linguistics and emphasizes how spoken and written language operates in different social contexts. In the grammar section, concepts are formed into words in four steps. First, through pragmatics, words are constructed on an interpersonal level. Second, in the semantic step, the meaning of each word and phrase is examined at the presentation level. Morphological syntactic steps, grammar, and morphology are considered. Finally, the phonological level takes into account the sound of the language discourse. (OpenAI, 2023)

4.3.1. Metafunctions

In 1956, Halliday published Grammatical Categories in Modern Chinese, which established a system for analyzing the relationship between linguistic units. In 1968, Halliday proposed the four functions of the grammar system—the experience function, the logical function, the discourse function, and the interpersonal function. Later, after analyzing and summarizing, he summarized the function of language into three major functions - interpersonal function, interpersonal function and text function.The three metafunctions operate at the clause level. All three metafunctions are embodied in clause, and none of the metafunctions is more important than the other. In fact, they are organized together in messages, is clause. (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2008)

Figure 4.3.1 mood (Web retrieval of images) Download by https://images.app.goo.gl/Enc Mood3jkT

4.3.2. Interpersonal Function

Language is used to engage us in interacting with others, to function, to express and understand emotional attitudes and judgments, a function known as interpersonal function. Tone and modality are the main grammatical systems for interpersonal functioning.

4.3.2. 1.Mood

Tone refers to the roles, occasions, etc. of both sides of the conversation; And modality refers to the degree of affirmation of the sentence, whether it is absolute and certain, and to what extent. The tone is divided into thematic and qualifying components. Defining ingredients can be done in two ways. One involves the speaker's time; The other involves the judgment of the speaker.

it reflects the speaker's feelings, emotions, and intentions towards the listener or the subject matter. Tone can be conveyed through word choice, intonation, emphasis, and other linguistic features. For example, a speaker can use a sarcastic tone to express irony or a compassionate tone to convey empathy.

4.3.2. 2.Moralization

The tense mainly includes: the speaker's past tense, future tense, and present tense. Modal refers to the speaker's judgment of the validity of the proposition he puts forward in the statement and interrogative sentence, the obligation required of the other party in the command, and the expression of personal will in the offering, and such social role relations are all embodied by the modal system

Modality is often expressed through modal verbs (e.g., can, could, may, might, must, should) or other linguistic devices such as adverbs (e.g., possibly, probably) or phrases (e.g., it is likely that, it is necessary). Modality allows speakers to indicate their judgments, beliefs, or expectations about the information they are conveying.

So, while tone focuses on the emotional and attitudinal aspects of communication, modality deals with expressing degrees of certainty, possibility, or necessity. Both tone and modality are important for effective interpersonal communication as they contribute to the overall meaning and impact of a message.

4.3.3. Texual Function

The discourse deals with the theme-rheme system, cohesion-coherence, etc. The discourse function is a mechanism in the language, through which the composition of the article and the coherence of the chapter can be realized, so that a bunch of randomly arranged sentences can be formed into actual information, and at the same time give meaning to it. The discourse function can be the street connection of the discourse, and can also highlight some components of the discourse, so that the reader's attention is focused on these components, and the function of the discourse contains three parts: the subject-narrative structure, the information structure and the street connection structure.

4.3.3. 1.Theme/Rheme

The subject position is the starting point of the message, the beginning of the small sentence. The narrative refers to the remainder outside the primary bit. In a sentence, the body that blends with the subject is the "last tag body". For example: My sister (unmarked) has bought a new bike. Principals other than the subject are called tag bodies. The most common form of marking the subject is the adverb, such as today, suddenly or several phrases, such as at night, in the corner, without much hope, etc. as an auxiliary role in the sentence.

4.3.3. 2.Cohesion and Coherence

Articulation and coherence are two different concepts, articulation is a discourse phenomenon, and the speaker will use means such as should be taken along, omitted, connective, etc. to keep the discourse connected. And coherence is a psychological phenomenon, this coherence exists in our minds, it is difficult to find clues in the discourse

4.3.4. Conclusion

Overall, function grammar provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the structure, function, and meaning of language. It offers a rich set of tools and concepts for analyzing and describing how language is used in various contexts and for different purposes.

4.4. Grammar and Meaning

4.4.1. Grammar usage

From the combined standpoint of structural approaches to grammar and Systemic Function Grammar, we may find that grammar is utilized as a tool to combine words and phrases into sentences to form meaning, and then functioned as a system of human communication. what's more it changes in different period, which can be discussed in the following pages.

4.4.1.1 Grammar utilized in the public field or daily life during the ancient times

The term "grammar" first can be seen from the ancient Greece, and the original and earliest known grammatical rules can be traced back to ancient Greece as well. "урациатикі", is the skill, expertise, or knowledge belonging to a person. As time went by, the term gains various and extended implication for reasonable factors. (Blank, D. L. 2000)

a person knows how to read and write, can set apart vowels, consonants and semi-consonants
to be used for what one would now call philology and criticism
the content of grammarian's discipline is enlarged
from the end of antiquity, it is this use of the term which has given to the modern notion of grammar

(Andreas, 2010)

4.4.1.2. The code of Hammurabi in classical period

Grammar used in public space can be found during the Babylonian legal. The code of Hammurabi is a Babylonian legal text, which is the longest, best-organized, and best-preserved text from the ancient Near East. Its scope is broader than the former laws, for example, criminal law, property law, family law, and commercial law.Among all of them, grammar is used to describe in a formal pattern, which is to reduce errors. (As shown in Figures 4.4.1.2).

Use of passive voice: the passive voice is commonly used in in laws to emphasize the action rather than the actor. This can help to focus on the offense or violation being addressed rather than attributing blame.

Use of modal verbs: modal verbs such as "shall," "may," and "must" are frequently used in laws to indicate obligations, permissions, or prohibitions. This helps to establish the legal requirements and expectations.

Use of legal references: laws often refer to other statues, legal documents, or regulations. These references are typically cited using specific legal conventions, such as titles, section numbers, or dates, all of which need the participation of grammar.

Figure 4.4.1.2: The code of Hammurabi

Figure 4.4.1.2: The code of Hammurabi's content

4.4.1.3. grammar and meaning used in Medieval education

Medieval education, especially in Europe, was primarily conducted in Latin, which was the main language of the church and upper class, that is, this sort of education was largely centred around religion and was mainly exclusively for the children of wealthy families. Latin grammar was widely emphasized in Medieval education, and at the same time the students were expected to master intricacies of Latin grammar before progressing to other subjects and fields.

The study of grammar served as the foundation for learning other subjects, which also indicates the importance of Latin grammar in medieval education.

Figure 4.4.1.3: Latin noun cases

Latin nouns:

They have various forms known as cases, which demonstrate their grammatical function in a sentence. (As shown in Figures 4.4.1.3).

4.4.2. Meaning Evolution

In terms of this topic, it is highly important to note that the evolution of words' meaning is a dynamic and ongoing process, influenced by various factors: cultural shifts, Political and Ideological Changes, and also technological advancements( Xu Jing, 2020), all of which boost the development, transformation and even the combination of meaning.

4.4.2.1 Cultural shifts

Changes in society and culture can influence the meanings of words to a large extent. Specifically, as societal attitudes towards certain evolve, the meaning of related words may change as well in part because of the association between them.

For instance, the term "fig-leave" gains its irrelative implication with the reason for the Holy Bible. The word means fig trees' leaves, however, means "loincloth " driving from the story of Adam and Eve. (As shown in Figures 4.4.2.1).

Another example is the word "hipster" originally referred to a specific subculture in the 1940s but has evolved to describe a broader group of individuals associated with alternative and non-mainstream trends.

Figure4.4.2.1: the story of Adam and Eve

(generated from Padlet)

4.4.2.2. Political and Ideological Changes

Political and ideological shifts can impact the meaning of words, particularly when it comes to terms related to governance, power, and social movements. Words like "liberal," "conservative," or "radical" can have different connotations and associations depending on the socio-political context.

4.4.2.3. Technological Advancements

In current times, technological advancements have a profound impact on the development of the society and booming population: increasing communication and connection, economic development and social transformation, all of which give positive motivation to the evolution of grammar and meaning. For instance, the word “pen” gains its new meaning as the things to write with instead of its former and initial meaning as feather, with the motivation of industrialization. (As shown in Figures 4.4.2.3).

Figure 4.4.2.3: Industrialization ( generated from Padlet)

4.4.2.4 Globalization and Multiculturalism

The transmission and wide-spread popularization of loanwords may have a big effect on the evolution of native words which are to extend or lessen the meaning, that is, vocabulary emerges while more loanwords exist. In other words, it also means the decrease of a word's meaning.

For instance, Continental America was first discovered and used after the Great Geographic Discoveries, and this word is wide-spread throughout many continents during the Age of Navigation, that is, it is the globalization and multiculturalism that make the new, unknown got its meaning. (As shown in Figures 4.4.2.4).

Figure 4.4.2.4: Globalization and Multicalturalism

4.4.3. Types of semantic evolution of words' meaning

Semantic, or the accepted meaning of a word, can evolve into various categories over time. In terms of the categories, generalization and specialization are the two main parts, which can be found in many words (Xu, 2020). Both processes contribute to the richness and flexibility of language, allowing it to adapt and reflect the changing needs of its speakers.

4.4.3.1 Generalization of words' meaning

This term refers to the extension of a word’s acceptance, which is to include a broader or more general meaning.

From concrete meaning to abstract meaning : “grasp” originally meant “to catch”, which is a specific act, but now it had the meaning of mastering something (Xu, 2020).

From proper none to common none: the word " holiday" drives from the original spell " holy day" , with the meaning related to religion, however, now extended to every holiday. (As shown in Figures 4.4.3.1).

Figure 4.4.3.1: The behavior of "grasp"

(generated from Padlet)

Figure 4.4.3.1: grasping knowledge

4.4.3.2 Specialization

When a word is changed from its ordinary meaning to a specific meaning, that is, from the concept “class” to the concept of “ species”, and that is called the lessening of words. The specialization of words allows for precision and clarity within specific contexts or fields of knowledge. It enables effective communication within those domains while also reflecting the evolving nature of language. Loanwords' existence may also bring specialization of words' meaning to some extent, which belongs to the external factors when world background is changing heavily.

From common none to proper none: the term "cape", which has the former meaning of foreland, now largely being used as " the cape of Good Hope" and it is caused by formed gradually social habits (Xu, 2020).

4.4.4. Controversy in grammar teaching
The history of language teaching is essentially the history of the claims and counterclaims for and against the teaching of grammar. Differences in attitude to the role of grammar underpin differences between methods, between teachers, and between learners. ( Thornbury, 1999) Over the last century, there have been various arguments regarding whether the rules of grammar should be made explicit in language teaching. Many educators and specialists give various answers to this question, which helps distinguish the different methods of grammar teaching and make huge progress in this field.

4.4.4.1. Communicative language teaching (CLT)
This theory emphasizes meaningful communication and downplays explicit grammar instruction. It has the belief that communicate competence consists of more than simply the information of the stable rules of grammar, however, it did not reject grammar teaching out of hand and that is, grammar was remain a compatible part of communicative language teaching, even if it was dressed up in functional labels, such as asking the way, talking about things and making future plans. They believe that explicit grammar instruction can be tedious and hinder fluency development.
However, with new theories absorbed in it, this seemed to suggest to theorists that explicit rule-giving may have a place after all, and therefore grammar rules reappeared in coursebooks and grammar teaching reemerged in classrooms.

4.4.4.2. Task-based Learning

Task-based learning advocates argue that grammar should be taught in context, through meaningful tasks and activities. (As shown in Figures 4.4.4.2). They believe that learners acquire grammar more effectively when they actively engage in tasks that require them to use the language for real-world purposes. Implicit grammar instruction can be incorporated into these tasks, allowing learners to notice and internalize grammar rules naturally. ( Skehan. 1996)

Figure 4.4.4.2: students are taking exams

Figure 4.4.4.2: students are communicating

4.4.4.3. Individual Learning Styles

Some argue that the need for explicit grammar instruction varies depending on individual learning styles. (As shown in Figures 4.4.4.3). Some learners may benefit from explicit instruction, as it provides clear guidelines and structure. Others may prefer a more implicit approach, as it allows for more exploration and discovery.

Figure 4.4.4.3: Individual Learning Styles

Conclusion
In these 4 sections, a lot of detailed information and practical examples are shown, which may give you a better understanding of the overall chapter and sub-topics. Besides, the whole logic is from the historical background to the modern development, therefore it may offer a comprehensive and coherent notion.

Comprehension questions (Chapter 4)

Please answer the following 10 multiple choice questions.

1. Are Functional Grammar and Structural Grammar completely opposed to each other? (B)

A)True.

B)False.

2.Is Transformational-Generative Grammar representative of Functional Grammar or Structural Grammar? (A)

A)Functional Grammar.

B)Structural Grammar.

C)Neither.

D)Both.

3. Did Halliday start to develop Systemic-Functional Grammar theory as a way of understanding a Chinese? (B)

A)False.

B)True.

4. Which one is not one of the three meta-functions? (C)

A)textual function

B)ideational function

C)mental function

D)interpersonal function

5. “John is a doctor" use the relational process type to describe John’s profession. (A)

A)True.
B)False.

6. Systemic-functional linguistic explores the application of linguistics. (A)

A)True.
B)False.

7. EVA is a description in "EVA invites friends to a party". （A）

A）True

B）False

8. Tone refers to the roles, occasions. （A）

A）True

B）False

9. The textual function of functional grammar focuses on articulation and coherence. （A）

A）Yes

B）No

10. Which factors have stimulative and effective impact on meaning evolution? (D)

A) Technological advancement

B) Cultural shifts

C) Globalization and multiculturalism

D) All of them

References

Wang, L. (2011). Introduction to language studies. Singapore: Pearson Custom Publishing.

Liu, R. (2002). Schools of Linguistics. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press Publishing.

Liu. X. (2000). An Introduction to Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language. Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press Publishing.

Halliday, M. A. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. Wiley-Blackwell. p. xiii.

Bakuuro, J. (2017). Demystifying Halliday’s Metafunctions of Language. International Journal of Language and Literature, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.15640/IJLL.V5N2A21

Andreas, U. S. (2010). The birth of grammar in Greece: A companion to the ancient Greek. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Catherine, M. C. (2008). Grammar and christianity in the late Roman world: From grammar to poetry. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.

John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.2008，55（1）：77-224

Thornbury, S. (1999). How to teach grammar: Why teach grammar. Harlow, West Sussex: Longman press.

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