Biologists are able to study life at multiple levels of organization,[1] from the molecular biology of a cell to the anatomy and physiology of plants and animals, and evolution of populations.[1][6] Hence, there are multiple subdisciplines within biology, each defined by the nature of their research questions and the tools that they use.[7][8][9] Like other scientists, biologists use the scientific method to make observations, pose questions, generate hypotheses, perform experiments, and form conclusions about the world around them.[1]
The basis for modern genetics began with the work of Gregor Mendel in 1865.[26] This outlined the principles of biological inheritance.[27] However, the significance of his work was not realized until the early 20th century when evolution became a unified theory as the modern synthesis reconciled Darwinian evolution with classical genetics.[28] In the 1940s and early 1950s, a series of experiments by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase pointed to DNA as the component of chromosomes that held the trait-carrying units that had become known as genes. A focus on new kinds of model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics. From the 1950s onwards, biology has been vastly extended in the molecular domain. The genetic code was cracked by Har Gobind Khorana, Robert W. Holley and Marshall Warren Nirenberg after DNA was understood to contain codons. The Human Genome Project was launched in 1990 to map the human genome.[29]
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All organisms are made up of chemical elements;[30] oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen account for most (96%) of the mass of all organisms, with calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium constituting essentially all the remainder. Different elements can combine to form compounds such as water, which is fundamental to life.[30] Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. Molecular biology is the branch of biology that seeks to understand the molecular basis of biological activity in and between cells, including molecular synthesis, modification, mechanisms, and interactions.
Gene expression is the molecular process by which a genotype encoded in DNA gives rise to an observable phenotype in the proteins of an organism's body. This process is summarized by the central dogma of molecular biology, which was formulated by Francis Crick in 1958.[70][71][72] According to the Central Dogma, genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein. There are two gene expression processes: transcription (DNA to RNA) and translation (RNA to protein).[73]
Evolution is a central organizing concept in biology. It is the change in heritable characteristics of populations over successive generations.[82][83] In artificial selection, animals were selectively bred for specific traits.[84] Given that traits are inherited, populations contain a varied mix of traits, and reproduction is able to increase any population, Darwin argued that in the natural world, it was nature that played the role of humans in selecting for specific traits.[84] Darwin inferred that individuals who possessed heritable traits better adapted to their environments are more likely to survive and produce more offspring than other individuals.[84] He further inferred that this would lead to the accumulation of favorable traits over successive generations, thereby increasing the match between the organisms and their environment.[85][86][87][84][88]
Conservation biology is the study of the conservation of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions.[160][161][162] It is concerned with factors that influence the maintenance, loss, and restoration of biodiversity and the science of sustaining evolutionary processes that engender genetic, population, species, and ecosystem diversity.[163][164][165][166] The concern stems from estimates suggesting that up to 50% of all species on the planet will disappear within the next 50 years,[167] which has contributed to poverty, starvation, and will reset the course of evolution on this planet.[168][169] Biodiversity affects the functioning of ecosystems, which provide a variety of services upon which people depend. Conservation biologists research and educate on the trends of biodiversity loss, species extinctions, and the negative effect these are having on our capabilities to sustain the well-being of human society. Organizations and citizens are responding to the current biodiversity crisis through conservation action plans that direct research, monitoring, and education programs that engage concerns at local through global scales.[170][163][164][165]
Topics from biological dynamic topic model on ginseng-related literature. The top 10 words at each time slice have been illustrated for topic 9 (a) and topic 6 (b); the topic score reflects how its topic has changed over time with c for topic 9 and d for topic 6
A persistent presence in space can either be supported from Earth or generate the required resources for human survival from material already present in space, so called "in situ material.'' Likely, many of these resources such as water or oxygen can best be liberated from in situ material by conventional physical and chemical processes. However, there is one critical resource required for human life that can only be produced in quantity by biological processes: high-protein food. Here, recent data concerning the materials available on the Moon and common asteroid types is reviewed with regard to the necessary materials to support the production of food from material in situ to those environments. These materials and their suitability as feedstock for the biological production of food are reviewed in a broad and general way such that terminology that is often a barrier to understanding such material by interdisciplinary readers is avoided. The waste products available as in situ materials for feasibility studies on the International Space Station are also briefly discussed. The conclusion is that food production in space environments from in situ material proven to exist there is quite feasible. Key Words: Astrobiology-Asteroid-Biomineralogy-Cyanobacteria. Astrobiology 12, 1135-1142.
N2 - A persistent presence in space can either be supported from Earth or generate the required resources for human survival from material already present in space, so called "in situ material.'' Likely, many of these resources such as water or oxygen can best be liberated from in situ material by conventional physical and chemical processes. However, there is one critical resource required for human life that can only be produced in quantity by biological processes: high-protein food. Here, recent data concerning the materials available on the Moon and common asteroid types is reviewed with regard to the necessary materials to support the production of food from material in situ to those environments. These materials and their suitability as feedstock for the biological production of food are reviewed in a broad and general way such that terminology that is often a barrier to understanding such material by interdisciplinary readers is avoided. The waste products available as in situ materials for feasibility studies on the International Space Station are also briefly discussed. The conclusion is that food production in space environments from in situ material proven to exist there is quite feasible. Key Words: Astrobiology-Asteroid-Biomineralogy-Cyanobacteria. Astrobiology 12, 1135-1142.
AB - A persistent presence in space can either be supported from Earth or generate the required resources for human survival from material already present in space, so called "in situ material.'' Likely, many of these resources such as water or oxygen can best be liberated from in situ material by conventional physical and chemical processes. However, there is one critical resource required for human life that can only be produced in quantity by biological processes: high-protein food. Here, recent data concerning the materials available on the Moon and common asteroid types is reviewed with regard to the necessary materials to support the production of food from material in situ to those environments. These materials and their suitability as feedstock for the biological production of food are reviewed in a broad and general way such that terminology that is often a barrier to understanding such material by interdisciplinary readers is avoided. The waste products available as in situ materials for feasibility studies on the International Space Station are also briefly discussed. The conclusion is that food production in space environments from in situ material proven to exist there is quite feasible. Key Words: Astrobiology-Asteroid-Biomineralogy-Cyanobacteria. Astrobiology 12, 1135-1142.
The curriculum for the undergraduate major in Biology with a teacher education concentration, offered through the College of Arts and Sciences , provides a strong background in the basic concepts of molecular, organismic, and population biology for the student who is interested in a career in science teaching at the secondary level.
This program approved by the Illinois State Board of Education, leads to the Initial Secondary License qualifying students to teach Secondary Science. Students who major in biology with a concentration in secondary education may obtain an endorsement that prepares them for teaching in the middle school. Students wishing to pursue this endorsement must take three hours of methods related to the middle school. Students should contact their advisor for specific course requirements.
WBCHSE Class 12 Biology Syllabus 2024: It should go without saying how crucial it is to comprehend biology that it is taught in WBCHSE Class 12 Syllabus 2024 for Biology commencing in fifth grade. For the West Bengal Board, the WBCHSE Class 12 Syllabus 2024 for Biology gives us in-depth information on the subject. e24fc04721
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