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Figure 1: Schematic interior structure, dynamic and solute transport and cycling processes inside an ocean super-Earth and an icy moon of our solar system with high-pressure ice (Titan, Ganymede and Callisto)
Figure 2: Schematic diagram of steps in the theoretical model to simulate the volcanic outgassing of water on the TRAPPIST-1 exoplanets.
Figure 3: Cartoon illustrating oceanic basaltic magmatism with possible processes that can contribute to non-traditional stable isotopic variations in MORBs and OIBs. Low-temperature water-rock interactions during continental weathering and seafloor alteration can produce highly heterogenous sediments and altered mafic to ultramafic rocks in the subducting slabs. Subduction transfers these surface materials into the mantle through prograde metamorphism in the subduction zone. Slab-modified mantle wedge may contribute to the source heterogeneity of MORBs, and deep subducted slab components down to the core-mantle boundary may contribute to OIB sources. Magmatic processes from partial melting, mixing, to magmatic differentiation all can potentially modify non-traditional isotopic compositions of oceanic basalts. From Teng, F.-Z. and Williams H. M. (2025) Non-traditional stable isotope geochemistry of oceanic basalts. In: Earth's Interior, C. Chauvel, editor, Treatise on Geochemistry, Third Edition, Volumne 1, (eds. Weiss, C. and Anbar, A.). 463-511. Elsevier-Pergamon, Oxford, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-99762-1.00133-9
Figure 4: A landslide dam forms when a landslide fails into a river valley and dams the flow of water. A new lake grows upstream of the dam, gradually flooding anything there. At any moment the dam may fail, draining the lake rapidly, and possibly resulting in a catastrophic outburst flood.
Figure 5: Stratigraphy, chronology, and liquefaction features of Event(s) C at site KC. Block diagram shows field observations of lithology, sand dikes, and location and age of radiocarbon samples.
Figure 6: At the local scale, megafloods mantle the channel with coarse boulders (>4 m diameter), inhibiting river incision and forcing the channel to steepen to maintain erosional efficiency. Individual boulder bars produce localized perturbations, with changes in steepness ~250 meters downstream. At the reach (kilometer) scale, the spatial density of these perturbations controls channel form: reaches with few boulder bars experience lower perturbation and lower mean steepness, whereas reaches with abundant boulder deposits are more perturbed, and exhibit higher mean steepness.
Figure 7: Fluvial dynamics and their preserved cross-stratification. (A) Fluvial sandstone from the Willwood Formation of the Bighorn Basin, Wyoming, USA, with (B) the boundaries of individual cross-sets and select foresets delineated. (C) During equilibrium dynamics, a wide distribution in the morphology and scour-depth of dunes creates variability in cross-set thickness. (D) Disequilibrium dynamics, which most often occur during flood recession (Leary & Ganti, 2020), result in the minimal reworking of flood-equilibrated dunes by a more uniform distribution of smaller, post-flood dunes. Disequilibrium dynamics produce low variation in preserved cross-set thickness. We measure set thickness along evenly spaced intervals. (E) The coefficient of variation (CV) of cross-set thickness differentiates between formative conditions: equilibrium dynamics produce high CVs (≥ 0.58), while disequilibrium dynamics yield low CVs (< 0.58).
Figure 8: Using low temperature thermochronology to reconstruct time-temperature path that brought rocks from depth to surface.
Figure 9: Schematic diagram of the “Seafloor weathering-Continental weathering- Ocean Mixing (SCOM)” mechanism for cap carbonate deposition after the Marinoan Snowball Earth event.
Figure 10: Fjords are stratified with an inverted thermal gradient: cold glacial melt forms a surface plume, warm seawater occupies deeper layers, and intermediate layers lie in between. A melt boundary layer initially insulates the glacier’s calving front (a). During peak melt and discharge, a strong melt plume increases the density gradient, generating internal gravity waves (IGWs) along thermoclines that disturb the boundary layer (b). This disturbance allows increased heat flux from warmer surrounding waters, accelerating submarine melting and destabilizing the calving front (c). Subsequent calving imparts kinetic energy into the fjord, displacing water vertically and horizontally and exciting IGWs (d). The combined effects of iceberg motion and turbulent IGWs promote mixing in the fjord (e). Over time, this mixing reduces temperature and density gradients, resulting in longer period and less energetic IGWs (f).
Figure 11: Carbonate formation is proposed to occur through both abiotic and biotic processes. The most widely accepted models suggest precipitation of crystals in the water column related to 1) "whiting events", 2) the degradation of calcareous algae, or 3) biologically induced by the degradation of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). Additionally, there are also models suggesting 4) formation in the sediment column and by 5) post depositional alteration.
Figure 12: Schematic diagram showing evolution of the Duwamish marsh over time.
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