Studying Skills

Overview

Current research indicates that those people who interact with information using more than one sense retain far more information. For example, a student that takes accurate notes during a lecture or class discussion and reviews them regularly is far more likely to retain the main points and supporting details needed to understand the concepts being studied. Becoming a good note-taker in the classroom takes time and practice, but it is well worth the effort. 

Students can improve note-taking skills in these ways: 

• Be prepared. Read all assigned materials before the lecture or class discussion. 

• Follow cues from the instructor about what is important such as repetition of a point, inflection in speech, changes in the rate of speech, or the use of visuals. 

• Tape-recording a class may not be helpful. Tapes can take considerable time to play back. Further, you may be less attentive in the classroom knowing that the session is being taped.

• Recopying notes is time-consuming, and time is at a premium. Avoid taking notes with the idea that you will recopy them later.

• You can’t record everything said. Note only the main ideas and key details. There is no need for complete sentences, although avoid being so cryptic you will not be able to recall what you considered important.

• Leave blank space as you take notes in order to add information that you missed.

• Immediately after class, review your notes while it is fresh in your mind. Make corrections or additions as necessary.

• Review your notes once a week.

Note-Taking in Research

Note-taking in a systematic manner is essential. You will rely on your notes when you begin writing your first draft, hence, it is important to know when the words you include are summaries, paraphrases, direct quotes, or your own words. This is crucial in avoiding plagiarism.

For any and every source that you plan to use, note its basic publication information with enough data to identify the source including the page reference. In addition, indicate what kind of note it is (that is, quotation, paraphrase, or summary).

There are three main systems for note-taking: note cards, computerized, and annotated copies of sources.

1. Note Cards: The researcher uses four- by six-inch or five- by eight-inch index cards for note-taking. With this method, put information from only one source or about only one subtopic on each card. At the top of each card, put the author of the source and the subtopic that the note covers. Include page numbers for documentation purposes later on, and in case you have to reread the passage later. Make sure that you indicate any quotation on a card with quotation marks. Further, include the appropriate term direct quote. If it is a summary or paraphrase, be sure to indicate this by including these terms. With this system, you can rearrange the cards and experiment with multiple ways of organizing your information as you plan your paper.

2. Digital Note-Taking: Another method is to type your notes into a document in a word processor program or a cloud-based app, such as Google Suite. With this method, create small “note cards,” keeping track of the author and publication data of the material, as well as noting whether the information is a direct quote, summary, or paraphrase. It is imperative to make a back-up copy of your notes in cloud-based storage or a removable storage disk if you choose to keep your files saved locally on your device. Many students have suffered the loss of notes that were kept on the computer. 

3. Annotated Copies of Sources: This approach is not for every paper. It is most useful with short assignments that do not involve a great number of sources or significant research. To make use of this system, photocopy or print the source material; underline or highlight useful information; write your reactions, paraphrases or summaries in the margins or on additional pages and attach to the copies. Be selective as you annotate and highlight a source and keep your purpose in mind.

Direct Quotes in Research

At times in a paper, it is best to rely on a direct quote to support your thesis or articulate ideas or evidence, particularly if the author’s words are memorable or striking.

• Be diligent in recording direct quotations with the words of the author precisely as it appears in the source.

• Record the publication data of your source.

• It is acceptable to delete a word, phrase, or sentence from a quotation as long as you do not change the meaning of the quotation. To indicate that you have deleted some material from the quotation, use an ellipsis mark (three spaced periods . . .) to indicate that you have made a deletion.

Summary Notes in Research

A summary note includes the main thrust of an author’s ideas but it does not include the exact wording or a paraphrase. A summary note is in your own words. 

Summary notes follow this pattern:

• Includes only information relevant to your topic and purpose;

• Condenses an author’s ideas in your own words;

• Includes ideas in the order in which they appear in the original source;

• Should be reread and revised making certain that you have sufficient information;

• Should include publication data.

Paraphrases in Research

We paraphrase when we want to record an author’s ideas and details but do not want to use a direct quote. In research, we paraphrase only ideas and details that we intend to use—not an entire article.

• To paraphrase, restate the author’s ideas in your own words.

• Do not condense ideas or eliminate details as you do with a summary.

• Use your own words─that is, use different sentence patterns and vocabulary but keep the author’s intended meaning.

• A paraphrase should approximate the length of the original material.

• It is essential to avoid plagiarism. You must use your own words, not the author’s words or sentence structure.

Online Research

For online research, a good approach is to download the material you need (including the publication data). Having downloaded the material, you can mark it up as necessary, either by printing it out or using digital note-taking software.

Visual Sources Research

Much research includes visual source materials: photographs, artwork, tables, maps, and figures. If you include visuals in your paper, keep in mind that visuals are included only to support a point, not to make the paper look nice. Label the visuals in your notes and cite the source, as you will need this information in your documentation of sources in your paper. (In your paper, refer to the visual in your text, and explain its content if necessary. Don’t assume your reader will automatically understand it. Further, position the visual close to where it is mentioned in the paper.)

What Is Research?

Research is a diligent and systematic inquiry into a subject in order to discover or revise facts, theories, or our understanding of such. To conduct research, therefore, means to make an extensive investigation of a topic. The objective, pragmatically speaking for the student, is to complete an assignment given by the professor. The objective behind assigning research papers is typically to offer the student the opportunity to discover, reinforce or refine knowledge about a particular topic.

Two major distinctions exist between the different types of research:

1. Decision-oriented research is designed to provide information to a body of decision-makers. The researcher is not free to redirect her inquiries as they see fit. The research includes evaluation of operations research, and large scale continuous, systematic data collection survey efforts. The objective is to aid policy-makers and professional groups in the fulfillment of their responsibilities. The focus is more on problem solving and has a more practical focus.

2. Conclusion-oriented research takes its direction from the researcher’s commitments. The aim is to conceptualize and understand. Conclusion-oriented researchers are free to reframe their questions as they go along, taking advantage of each new or partial insight to redirect their inquiry. Such research is often found in academic disciplines.

The Basics of Research

Diane Capitani and Melanie Baffes, authors of Research and Writing in the Seminary, breaks research into two further categories:

1. First-hand research

   1. includes information you gather yourself; this may include interviews, surveys, case studies, observations, or personal experience

   2. is less common at the master’s level

   3. if it is included, typically the professor states exactly what the student is expected to do

2. Second-hand research

   1. includes investigating the works of other scholars; Capitani and Baffes suggest moving from general to more specific treatments of the topic

   2. begin with Bible commentaries, theological dictionaries, concordances, and other reference tools to familiarize yourself with the topic in a general sense and to build a bibliography

   3. check periodical literature for chief articles that address your topic beginning with the most recent

   4. pay attention to agreements and disagreements among scholars and the questions that surface (The DTL2 is a good place to start)

   5. identify primary sources

   6. evaluate sources

What Is Theological Research?

Why do theological research? Lucretia B. Yaghjian suggests that we “do theological research to uncover resources that will help [us] to reflect on the theological task, to trace its historical development, and to construct theologies that respond adequately to the questions posed by [our] own situations.” Yaghjian views theological research as a “craft requiring personal engagement, critical reflection, and the exercise of the theological imagination.” It is important that the student begin his or her research with questions, not answers. While we will likely have some base of knowledge as we approach our topic, it is essential to begin with an open mind, ready to learn and a willingness to change our minds if during our research we discover new information or new ways of perceiving an issue of topic.

Yaghjian offers “A Preliminary Map” that I have adapted slightly for the student researcher.

Theological research…

• begins with inquiry (investigation) (often related to class assignment)

• presupposes a methodology (research perspective)

• leads to a search for sources

• builds upon an ongoing scholarly conversation

• proceeds by hypothesis (thesis), assertion, and argument

• requires reading and reviewing of literature

• involves note-taking, writing, rewriting, and revision

• demands documentation

What Is a Methodology?

We approach a problem in a research paper with a specific “methodology.” Essentially, a methodology is the process you will create for yourself and then follow. Methodologies are less clear in theological research than one finds in the sciences; nevertheless, they are important as we set out to write a research paper, master’s thesis, or dissertation. If most of your research is to be library-based, your method will be to create a list of questions. 

Nancy Jean Vyhmeister and Terry Dwain Robertson offer the following examples:

• Will you trace the history first?

• Or will you do the exegesis of your text first?

• It is important to discuss with your professor how to use your sources.

• Will they be outlined? Compared? Analyzed?

Vyhmeister and Robertson offer the following example of a methodology with the topic of church growth in an inner-city church:

1. Review current literature on inner-city church growth, including theory and practical examples

2. Analyze the community in which the church functions

3. Study the church, its growth history, its activities, its climate, its membership

4. Design, implement, and evaluate a suggested church growth strategy for this church, based on the three previous points

The authors also suggest that before spending a significant portion of time writing, “simply list the different steps. What will you do first? Second? Third? Make sure the steps are completely logical for the problem as presented and the purpose as intended. Consultation with your professor or advisor is indispensable. Additional reading may also help clarify the steps you must take.” A methodology is a must in a theological research paper.

Works Cited

Capitani, Diane and Melanie Baffes. Research and Writing in the Seminary: Practical Strategies and Tools. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2014.

Vyhmeister, Nancy Jean and Terry Dwain Robertson. Your Guide to Writing Quality Research Papers: For Students of Religion and Theology, 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014.

Yaghjian, Lucretia B. Writing Theology Well: A Rhetoric for Theological and Biblical Writers. New York: Continuum, 2006.

1. Read the assignment as soon as you receive it. Don’t delay. Even though the assignment can look straightforward, make sure you understand it from the beginning. If you wait, you may find the assignment requires more time and effort than you allotted. Or, you may find that you misunderstood the assignment; as a consequence, you must start again, but there may be very little time before the paper is due. 

2. Assignments often follow a basic format (though not always): 

   1. overview of the topic, 

   2. includes a central verb or verbs that describe the task of the assignment,

   3. offers additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get started.

3. Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand.

The Task of the Assignment

Most often, you are being asked to make an argument. You must do more than repeat what you have read. You should have a “thesis” or a “claim.” Look for the key verb or verbs in the assignment.

Terms that ask you to demonstrate what you know about the topic, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why:

• Define

  • Give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). You may have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning.

• Describe

  • Give an account of a situation, thing, or person that includes all its constitutive elements (qualities, characteristics, or events).

• Enumerate

  • Mention separately as if in counting; name one by one, specifying, as in a list.

• Explain

  • Give reasons why or examples of how something happened.

• Identify

  • Recognize or establish as being a particular person or thing, or belonging to a particular category.

• Illustrate

  • Give descriptive examples of the subject; show how each is connected with the subject. Point to instances that make the topic concrete and specific. Select an example to show the nature or character of a group from which it is taken to demonstrate a principle. Examples often serve to illustrate a general statement, or generalization.

• Research

  • Gather material from outside sources about the topic, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you find.

• Review

  • Examine information and interpret in your own words.

• Summarize

  • Briefly list the important ideas covered in the source.

• Trace

  • Outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form.

Terms that ask you to demonstrate how things are connected:

• Account for

  • Give a satisfactory reason for a particular action, event, or way of thinking.

• Analyze

  • Determine how the individual parts create or relate to the whole; comprehend and communicate the structure of a topic or thing; find in the parts an idea or conclusion about the topic or thing that makes it clearer, truer, more comprehensive, or more vivid than when you began. (Some assignments may combine analysis with reflection.)

• Apply

  • Use the details that you have been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation.

• Argue

  • Take a position and defend it with evidence.

• Assess

  • Summarize your opinion of the topic and measure it against something.

• Cause

  • Show how an event or series of events made something else happen.

• Compare

  • Show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different).

• Contrast

  • Show how two or more things are dissimilar.

• Criticize

  • Judge or discuss the merits and faults of an idea, concept, theory, or action.

• Discuss

  • Consider or examine by argument.

• Evaluate

  • State your opinion of the topic as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons; make judgments based on criteria.

• Examine

  • Inspect or scrutinize carefully; inquire into or investigate; break down into parts and show relationships among parts.

• Interpret

  • Give or provide the meaning of, or explain according to one’s own understanding.

• Outline

  • Give a general sketch or account of only the main features or main aspects.

• Prove or Justify

  • Give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is true.

• Reconcile

  • Bring into agreement or harmony; make compatible or consistent.

• Relate

  • Show or describe the connections between things.

• Respond or Reflect

  • Consider a topic and look at it from different angles in order to develop a fuller understanding. Do not stop at writing down what you already know or feel, but go further, and look at the topic critically.

• Synthesize

  • Put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings. Do not summarize one and then the other, and simply state that they are similar or different, but provide a reason or reasons for putting them together.

• Support

  • Give reasons or evidence for something you believe. Be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe.

A Step by Step Checklist

• 1. Read the assignment the entire way through right away for an overall view of what is being asked of you. 

The topic (subject) of this assignment is…

• 2. What is the purpose of this assignment? Is it to provide information without forming an argument, to construct an argument based on research, or analyze an idea or topic? (Consider the key terms used to describe your task.) 

The purpose of this assignment is to…

• 3. What portions of the assignment must you know absolutely:

  • due date __________________

  • page length __________________

  • format of notes (biographical or author-date) ______________

  • research or source requirements ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

• 4. Think about how you will address the assignment; look for clues on how to write the assignment. Instructors often describe the ideas they want addressed in questions, in bullet points, or in the text of the assignment.

• 5. List the ideas you will address and rank in descending order, from most important to least important:

• 6. Write a narrowed working thesis.

• 7. Create a formal or informal outline. (see templates below)

• 8. List questions to ask your instructor (anything that is unclear to you):

Sample formal outline (template)

1. Title

2. Introduction

   1. Thesis (Topic + Comment)

   2. Introductory material

      1. source referring to if doing so

      2. what the reader will find in this essay

3. Body paragraphs

   1. Subtopic 1

      1. idea/fact

      2. draw a conclusion about how fact supports idea

   2. Subtopic 2

      1. example

      2. draw a conclusion about how example supports thesis

4. Conclusion

   1. Restate thesis

   2. Closing statement

Sample informal outline (template)

1. Title

2. Introduction with thesis (Topic + Comment); introductory material including source referring to (if doing so) and what the reader will find in this essay

3. Body paragraphs with subtopics (ideas or facts presented followed by a conclusion about how fact supports ideas)

4. Conclusion that restates the thesis and a concluding statement

Why use the Arts as a study tool?

• To see answers from a perspective more natural to you.

• To broaden and add depth to your interpretation of theology.

• To create an opening for your personal frame of reference to adapt to theological interpretation.

• To create a visual, musical, or performance vocabulary to use as a starting or “unsticking” point for interpretation.

• To locate the links between humans, history, belief, and faith as expressed in arts practices rather than in words.

• To ease into theological interpretation using a lens based more on imagination than on academic experience.

• To create a “surround” of art to find a visual and sensory context for theological study.

• Why not?

How might a student approach an assignment using art as a study strategy?

• Read the text/passage/verse. If the reading seems daunting, read only a small part of it to begin.

• How does the text reflect or refute or abrade your own experience?

• Contextualize the reading: translate it to your life, use it as the basis or contemporizing the language, apply its meaning to a familiar situation.

• What does the writing or meaning make you think of immediately? Is there an image, a movie, or a song that your brain connects to the reading? Sometimes these connections do not seem to make sense, but never underestimate the brain’s ability to help us bring new ideas to life in our minds.

• Use the electronic reference section at the library to research art, language, writing, or historical settings for the reading. Are there paintings? Who painted them and for whom? Were the people the writing was initially composed for nomadic, exiled, settled, oppressed, or liberated? How might this writing be used to address those same conditions today?

• Assigned readings have more than just a scholastic impact. They are often provocative in every way: they offend, they make no sense, they seem wrong, they seem no longer applicable to life today or our lives as people of faith. Turn that emotional response into a short poem, a quick drawing, a song that represents your reaction to the piece or the piece itself or both.

Example Exercises

Doodle or draw your response to a reading you have been assigned this week.

Pick a Psalm and use crayons or paint or markers to share the colors it brings out for you.

The Writing Process

• Writing is a process.

• This is as true in theology as in any other discipline.

• One paper follows another: It can feel like an unending climb up a steep staircase.

• A number of strategies can ease our way if we understand what serves us best in our writing process as we write in our theological studies.

Tips for Studying

1. Create a writing and study area

   1. Routinely work in the same space.

      1. An area inviting and conducive to writing

      2. A space in which you are comfortable

   2. Turn off electronic distractions.

   3. Include a clock.

   4. Good lighting is important.

2. Create a writing and study schedule

   1. Study and write at a time in which you are most productive.

   2. Be insistent: This time is set aside for writing and study.

   3. Be consistent with your writing and study schedule.

   4. To create time to write, we must stop doing something else. What do we need to give up or limit? Netflix? Video games? Unimportant phone calls and texts?

3. Develop writing rituals

   1. Rituals reduce writing anxiety, promote a sense of control, enhance linguistic fluency, and create a sense of calm.

   2. Rituals involve environment, time, and behavior—three circumstances that can be manipulated to help writing happen more easily.

   3. A particular chair, a favorite pen or genre of music, preparing a cup of tea—what works for you?

   4. Ritual offers control that simple determination doesn’t provide for us.

4. Create a plan

   1. Develop a plan to help reduce free-floating anxiety

   2. Unavoidable situations need attention, but stick to your plan as much as possible. Be honest about what is unavoidable.

   3. Even 20 minutes a day keeps material fresh in your mind and enables you to reflect on it at unexpected times.

   4. Aids to planning:

      1. Use a calendar. Enter all deadlines for financial aid, papers, and exams. Enter time spent in classes as well as personal commitments.

      2. Each evening make a to-do list for the next day of what you will need to accomplish.

      3. Prioritize by ranking each item by importance to avoid using time on nonessential tasks. This makes projects less overwhelming; it also helps you stay on task.

      4. Create deadlines for yourself, but be realistic.

5. Write to stay mentally and physically active and aid memory retention

   1. Take notes.

   2. Separate essential from non-essential information.

   3. Focus on meaning, not memorization.

   4. As you take notes, connect new information to what you already know.

   5. Study aids:

      1. Diagram information as you take notes

      2. Annotate your sources

      3. Highlight as you read and research

      4. Ask questions of your instructor

      5. Doodle as you work

      6. Stand up and go for a walk

6. Procrastination

   1. We often deal with writing anxiety by procrastinating—that is, we spend our time on work with a low priority.

   2. Make use of wasted time when you commute, stand in lines, and wait for appointments.

   3. Carry pocket work to make use of time otherwise wasted such as short reading assignments; or, write in your planner to organize yourself. Minutes here and there add up.

7. Vary writing assignments

   1. Rather than read or work on 2, 3, or 4 assignments in a row, vary the assignments.

   2. Vary the types of activities as well: Take notes on one, read for one, research another.

   3. Break papers and projects into small tasks. A term paper entails many steps: find a topic, locate research, read, write. Each step can also be broken down into smaller tasks.

8. Reward yourself

   1. Reward yourself for small gains as well as larger ones.

   2. If your goal is to write and study for two hours, reward yourself for finishing the first hour with a cup of tea, text to a friend, or a listen to your favorite song.

   3. For larger gains, reward yourself with a trip to the museum, a visit to a park, coffee with a friend, or time with a loved one.

9. Sometimes, you must say “no”

   1. Tempted to take on too much? (Extra classes, job responsibilities, or extracurricular activities?)

   2. Learn to say “no.” School is a priority for you at this point in your life.

   3. Is your workload too heavy? What responsibilities do you have for yourself, family, and friends?

   4. Consider the importance of each activity before adding it to your schedule.

10. Never underestimate the power of sleep

    1. Sleep is your friend. At times you will be sleep deprived, but generally it is not helpful.

    2. Lack of sleep will impede your progress in your studies and writing and likely prove counterproductive.

    3. Some find a short 10 to 20 minute nap during the day beneficial.

    4. Or, close your eyes for a brief period; you may feel refreshed with more energy as you return to work.

Remember!

Your study habits and the manner in which you manage your time matter. Both will make a difference in your level of stress and ability to cope with your work in seminary.

A checklist of things to consider when deciding the value of a particular source:

• AUTHOR / CREATOR 

What are the author’s credentials, expertise, and background? Are they easily available for the reader to see?

• PUBLISHER 

Is this an academic or popular work? An academic press or a publishing house of more popular works?

• SPONSOR / INSTITUTION OF ORIGIN 

If this is a website, who supports & maintains the site?

• PURPOSE 

Is this work intended to be academic, ideological, devotional in nature?

• SCOPE 

Does the work touch on the subject of your research in passing or is it the main focus of the work?

• QUALITY OF CONTENT 

Is the work accurate, thorough, useful? Does it employ good spelling & grammar?

• DOCUMENTATION

Are there footnotes? A bibliography? Are the citations clear and accurate?

• INDEX 

Is there an index to the work? Can you easily find what you are looking for in the work or website?

• CURRENCY

When was the work published? If this is a website, when was it last updated and is that information easily found? Note: In the field of religion/theology this is NOT the only test of relevancy.

• INTENDED AUDIENCE 

For whom is this written or created? Is this written or produced for academic scholars? Clergy? Laity? General population?

• BIAS / POINT OF VIEW 

Be aware of the author/creator’s particular ax to grind. Does the author / creator's point of view detract from or nullify their credibility?

• VOICE

Is the author speaking from within or from outside a particular context? Are they speaking ABOUT or FOR a particular community? Are they an insider or an observer?

• PEER-REVIEWED 

If this is an article that purports to be a scholarly work, has it been reviewed by other scholars in the field prior to publication?