Afghanistan is one of the most heavily mined countries in the world. The root of humanitarian demining projects, Afghanistan has had as many as 10 million mines planted within its borders based on UN estimates. Landmines have created major environmental, infrastructural, and developmental disruptions and devastation. Tracing the historical roots of both landmines and demining action as well as examining the impact of landmines upon the environment and the differences in international and local responses is critical to understanding how Afghan people’s interactions with their environment has been fundamentally shaped by the presence of these weapons.

History of landmine USAGE IN AFGHANISTAN

Explosive landmines were first developed by the Chinese in 1277. However, high-explosive landmines were not rudimentarily used until the United States Civil War in 1861. More advanced and deadly landmines were heavily utilized during the trench warfare of World War I.

In Afghanistan, however, the Soviet occupation of 1979 introduced landmines into the environment. However, more generalized environmental and civilian warfare have a major historical precedence within the nation: in the 1722 Battle of Gulnabad, crops were burned and civilians were massacred during the army's retreat. Following the Soviet invasion in 1979, half the population of Afghanistan fled to Pakistan or Iran. Soviet forces were engaged in a massive mine campaign, often indiscriminately littering the nation with butterfly mines, anti-vehicular mines, and anti-personnel mines. The United States backed mujahedeen rebel group also utilized both improvised and imported mines. The high casualty rates and socio-economic implications created by landmines became too significant of a problem for humanitarian groups to ignore. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the subsequent outbreak of civil war between the fragile mujahedeen government and forces attempting to exert influence, mines were readily planted throughout the nation to deter rebel forces and warlord infighting. From the chaos of this period, the Taliban emerged in 1994 as an apparent answer to the violence and destruction rampant throughout the nation. The Taliban asserted itself as the ultimate authority, cracking down on the warlord- and militia- run society that Afghanistan had become. In 1996, the Taliban assumed power of Afghanistan, ultimately condemning the use of landmines in 1998, stating the use of them was "anti-Islamic and punishable by death (Human Rights Watch). Their claims against landmines have come into question in recent years, as there has been a resurgence of landmine usage against both Afghani civilians as well as American forces that invaded Afghanistan following the September 11 Attacks.

political responses to landmines

While the treaties and agreements that prohibited the use of landmines were not to emerge until the late 20th century, legal precedent for the prohibition of certain types of weapons goes back to the mid-nineteenth century.

• St. Petersburg Declaration (1868): Originated the idea that combatants "should not suffer more than necessary" by prohibiting the use of exploding bullets (ICRC).
• 1899 Hague Convention and 1907 Hague Convention: the ways of injuring an enemy are not limitless
• Geneva Convention (1925) : prohibited the use of poison gas (UN).
• Fourth Geneva Convention (1949): protection of civilians in a time of war, creating the idea of discriminating between combatants and non-combatants
• Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Convention: generally protects civilian population from military matters.
• Convention on Certain Chemical Weapons, Protocol II (1980): regulates (does not ban) landmines.
• Ottawa Treaty (1999): prohibited the use, transfer, stockpiling, and production of anti-personnel landmines
  • 2001: Afghanistan acedes Ottawa Treaty
  • 2002: Amendment addresses cluster munitions

Landmines affects on the environment

The effects of landmines on the environment itself have been immeasurable. They extend from water pollution to species disruption. Some general ideas of what we’re talking about:

• Landmines have affected transportation, crop production, livestock, water supply, and energy generation and distribution
• Prior to the outbreak of the civil war, Afghanistan was self-sufficient in wheat production and 85% of all food and 77% of all wheat grown was grown on irrigated land supported by karez (underground tunnels). After irrigation canals were mined or bombed, food production equals only 60% of pre-war totals. These levels are sufficient to meet the needs of only two-thirds of the population.
• Landmines have destroyed main transportation routes, further exacerbating this food shortage.
• Livestock had been a key part of the Afghan economy, acting as both an important aspect of agricultural production and a key indication of wealth (particularly in nomadic communities). A significant number of these have been killed either directly or indirectly by landmines.
• Destruction of water sources and irrigation systems, destroying the economies of many villages.

demining efforts

Upon seeing the massive humanitarian and developmental devastation during the Soviet Occupation in the 1980's, many groups like HALO Trust began emerging to both engage in demining efforts as well as educate Afghani locals about landmines. In the early days (starting in 1985), many of these aid and humanitarian efforts were made both covertly and illegally, often the result of smuggling from Pakistan. The initial main organization doing so was the USAID Cross-Border Humanitarian Assistance Program (the CBHA), which provided "'nonlethal' assistance that was vital to the mujahideen war effort"(Bolton). These supplies that the CBHA were smuggling into Afghanistan often were destroyed en route to their destination due to the accidental triggering of landmines. Thus, the first true demining program found its funding from USAID and was provided by RONCO Consulting Corporation. This initial effort used dogs in its demining effort to attract less attention, and the first dog training center (Afghanistan Mine Detection Dog Center) was set up in Pakistan. As this was entirely US funded, however, as United States interests in Afghanistan decreased, so did the funding.

The rise of nongovernmental work in demining occurred in a similar way to that of USAID. As NGOs already working within Afghanistan realized that landmines were posing a significant risk to both their work and their staff members, many groups began seeking ways to alleviate the situation (Bolton). From this, HALO (the Hazardous Area Life-support Organisation) Trust emerged. Founded by two ex-military officers, HALO remains the largest demining organization in the world, and one of Britain's largest NGOs. In 1989, HALO was given old Soviet landmine maps, enabling them to locate landmines with relative precision (though these were not completely accurate due to shifting soil and flooding).

With the withdrawal of the Soviet Union from Afghanistan and the end of the Cold War, the United States quickly lost interest in having direct interaction with demining efforts in Afghanistan. The US began funneling most of its funding towards MAPA (Mine Action Program for Afghanistan), a UN Program that consisted of various NGOs (including HALO Trust) as well as UNOCHA (the UN Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs). This early, incredibly disorganized attempt at demining was known as Operation Salam, and was undertaken in 1988. The organization was perceived as neutral, and actually found some support from the Taliban following their rise in 1996- 1997. However, many people and organizations found the bureaucratic nature of any United Nations subsidiary was too rigid. Moreover, many people felt that the program had rested in the control of international groups for too long and should transition to more locally-led initiatives. Finally, because of how geopolitically isolated the Taliban made Afghanistan, the UN found a lull in funding (Bolton).

Much of this changed following the September 11 attacks, as the United States again directly funded RONCO and engaged in military demining efforts in order to ensure the safety of troops on the ground. In 2005, the arena was opened up to many demining contractors, allowing for economic competition with the Afghan space. In 2006, USAID finally decided that it would no longer "channel its money through the UN to the local NGOs but would simplify the process by having the prime contractor... subcontract needed tasks to commercial demining companies"(Bolton).

While the increased commercialization of United States demining efforts has enabled increased productivity as well as specialization and innovation, there are still faults within this system. First of all, it is inherently commodifying safety, offering refuge to a mere privileged few. Moreover, while humanitarian companies operate at a successful clearance rate of between 99-99.9%, some projections put commercial companies at a slightly lower rate. Additionally, there has been a higher rate of accidents on commercial demining sites versus NGO sites (Bolton).

The inherent commodification of safety directly politicizes the environment. Countries can pay for contracting companies to demine areas necessary for military efforts. Wealthy Afghan citizens can pay for safety. Thus, there is a massive disparity in how everyday civilians interact with their environment as compared to how wealthy/ groups with ties to governments interact with theirs.

The presence of land mines changes the way that international human rights groups, children, and educators talk about the landscape and environment of Afghanistan. In particular, The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) sponsors programs to teach children about the dangers of landmines including: How to identify landmines and what to do if one comes up to a landmine.

On the one hand, the need for these programs is obvious. Children may encounter these deadly objects in their day-to-day life, and historically have been one of the most affected groups. Comprehensive de-mining efforts are a more recent addition to the international aid coming into Afghanistan, so there are still many mines left in the ground at this time. With this education, children may learn basic techniques that will save their lives.

On the other hand, these education programs are teaching children new and somewhat foreign ways to interact with the land around them. If you see a toy lying in the street, do not touch it. If you think you identify a mine, stand still and call for help. Know how minefields are marked, and know where minefields are.

Educators also target young adults who have fled dangerous areas of Afghanistan, but feel passionate about returning to help change the conditions on the ground. Land mine education is, in some respects, also geared to be action-oriented to teach these young adults how to identify landmines and potentially remove them.

What I hope to make clear in this section is that the content and the pedagogy regarding landmines serves to bring the individual Afghan closer to the Afghan environment.

The education these children and young adults receive is not meant to be an absolute solution to the problem Afghanistan faces. This education is a temporary fix while other physical solutions are taking place. Nonetheless, this temporary fix does something to make the environment of Afghanistan more accessible to more individuals.

The need for education arises from the fact that landmines do not advertise themselves. Combatants who lay mines will not notify inhabitants of the location of minefields. These minefields may not be marked until a civilian or several civilians have already been killed. Even when they are marked, it requires education to learn about how the fields are marked, and how to identify mines that may lay outside the markings.

"Children are playing out in the fields and streets, and they come across these devices every day. But many think they are toys," Sultan Aziz, the training team leader for SCF in Afghanistan, told IRIN in Kabul" (Afghanistan: Focus).

what education LOOKS LIKE

The UNHCR This training program for facilitators and educators raises a number of critical issues regarding how information is disseminated to children in Afghanistan. Pay close attention to the ways in which the program approaches the tasks where children are interacting with something. Children interacting with physical models, children interacting with information, children interacting with the environment, and children interacting with others.

The program appears to be effective. Relief Web cites a report from IRIN, which writes about an example of one of these training programs being implemented. "Up to 10 children take part in sessions held at schools, where NGO trainers or teachers use charts, pictures and board and memory games to show youngsters what to avoid. The children also take part in a play where they have to make decisions on what to do if they see a landmine or pieces of UXO. "I didn't know what a landmine was or what it looked like," Nilam, aged 13, told IRIN at the Robia High School in Karte-ye Parvan District of Kabul Province. "They show us what these explosives look like. Now we know how dangerous they are, we will not touch them," she added (Afghanistan: Focus).

Unfortunately, bringing awareness to the issue of landmines does not prevent injuries or deaths. The education of children may provide a temporary solution, but it will always remain just that, temporary. The only way to actually prevent landmine deaths is to physically remove the mines.

From "The Never Ending Wars: Landmines and Unexploded Ordnance in Afghanistan" by Sediq Rashid

"When I was 19 years old our family decided to leave Afghanistan because of Wars. We became refugees. I was hoping to continue my education but I couldn’t. I had to earn money, I had to work. I heard about the de-mining course in Pakistan the United Nations had just launched in order to train some Afghan refugees there in order to clear landmines in Afghanistan.

I heard about it, I went, and there I learned.. that it was not just one land mine [like what] I had heard from my father. There were so many different types. In order to pass the course I was struggling how to memorize those names. [There] were anti-tank mines, antipersonnel landmines, you know like TC 6 made in Italy, MK7 made in United Kingdom, type 72 made in China, POMZ2 made in Russia. So all those countries had produced land mines and then sent it to Afghanistan to be used during the conflicts.

In this course we had also learned how to find a land mine, but it was a soft ground, and soon we would apply to [the] field to work on actual minefields"(Rashid, 2015).

…

I still remember the sad story of our first colleague who lost his life. We were working in Ghazni province, a village called Bandaz ar-de. When we went, there were so many minefields, they were not marked. The mines were visible and we were new. So our colleague, he was so enthusiastic to finish the job quickly every day he was finding a lot of mine and destroying them, but one day a mine detonated. He lost both of his hands, both of his eyes, and he had got a very deep injury in his thigh. We had to evacuate him. We were eating hours away from the nearest accessible hospital, we couldn’t take him to the resna center because of fear of being arrested because the Russian-backed government was still in power. I remember his words. He said, “I’m not going to survive, my injuries are serious, but remember one word from me. Until the last mine from the soil of Afghanistan is removed, please continue your work.” I will not forget those words.

An educational method such as this one is innovative, but costly. UN programs can recruit and train many individuals who come from Afghanistan and who feel passionate about returning to their land. However, the dangers of physical removal are clear. Moreso, the monetary costs of such removal program can appear unsustainable in light of an awareness that "a land mine that brings an arms vendor $3 in revenue costs the international community between $300 and $1,000 to clear"(UNHCR, "Critical Issues").

mine kafon

Education related to the removal of landmines once again seems only like a temporary fix, which may not produce the results it hopes to achieve. There is a need in Afghanistan to balance the costs of landmine removal, both physical and monetary. In the next section, I want to highlight a group of entrepreneurs that is working to achieve this balance. Their education was not centered on how to avoid or remove landmines. Rather, they took a conventional design and engineering education and translated it into what they think is a more cost-effective solution that will save the lives of children and Afghans in general.

The presence of landmines in Afghanistan creates an artificial barrier that separates the people from the environment. Land that can be used for farming, building, playing, traveling is cheaply turned into a minefield. The physical and monetary costs of landmines traditionally make their removal a frustrating, dangerous, and, in some cases, an economically infeasible task. The education of children and young adults has served as one method to bring individuals back in contact with their environments even though the landmines remain in the ground. Solutions are being implemented not only by international organizations such as the UNHCR, but also by Afghans who feel a responsibility to fix a land they never asked to be made inaccessible in the first place. Each approach to demining and education comes with its series of limitations and controversies, but the outcome and intent is always the same: provide the means to make Afghanistan accessible to Afghans.

Citations— Cameron

1925 Geneva Protocol – UNODA. (n.d.). Retrieved April 9, 2019, from https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/bio/1925-geneva-protocol/

Afghanistan: Environmental degradation in a fragile ecological setting. (n.d.). Retrieved April 8, 2019, from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13504500109470086?casa_token=xq9rvyNNBlsAAAAA:TVPenZRAEHzYOGXkPbqPmtFShDic2eUMhXntHxlMWoNCmeJzGQpM0hZWDuyfrXwUGkUP2iXKWa33Vg

Bolton, M. B. (2008, January). Goldmine?: A Critical Look at the Commercialization of Afghan Demining. Retrieved February 19, 2019, from https://www.academia.edu/2285766/Goldmine_A_Critical_Look_at_the_Commercialization_of_Afghan_Demining

Bolton, Matthew B. (2010) Foreign aid and landmine clearance: governance, politics and security in Afghanistan, Bosnia and Sudan. International library of postwar reconstruction & development (7). I.B. Tauris, London, UK.

Declaration Renouncing the Use, in Time of War, of Explosive Projectiles Under 400 Grammes Weight. Saint Petersburg. (n.d.). Retrieved April 9, 2019, from https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/ihl/full/declaration1868

Downs, C. (2009, November). Integrating Mine Action with Development. Retrieved April 9, 2019, from https://www.jmu.edu/cisr/_pages/research/other-resources/integrating-ma-with-development-final.pdf

Fraser, M. (2003). Landmines: An ongoing environmental health problem for the children of Afghanistan. Retrieved April 8, 2019, from http://jrtph.jcu.edu.au/vol/v02fraser.pdf

Gangwar, A. (2003, April 20). Landmines - Challenges to Humanity and Environment. Retrieved April 8, 2019, from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8277/4aeae44b32534d5ed24aded641432da1b4f2.pdf

Kjellman, K. E., Harpviken, K. B., Millard, A. S., & Strand, A. (2010, June 03). Acting as one? co-ordinating responses to the landmine problem. Retrieved April 10, 2019, from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0143659032000132894?casa_token=713WhZsNlkAAAAAA:JguD1bCsM97QuTdwOlyFsaUGE-nq-H2fANquk8FbTO6hFR1YjZagzc4OfQy-ILHk8EjPvjcbI0cn-Q&

Landmine Monitor 2017. (n.d.). Retrieved April 9, 2019, from http://www.the-monitor.org/en-gb/reports/2017/landmine-monitor-2017.aspx

Mansfield, I. (2015, December 14). Humanitarian Mine Action in Afghanistan: A History. Retrieved February 20, 2019, from https://paperity.org/p/84069472/humanitarian-mine-action-in-afghanistan-a-history

McGrath, R. (n.d.). Landmines. Retrieved April 8, 2019, from https://books.google.com/books/about/Landmines.html?id=Q1FzJ1U6LZsC

Monshipouri, M. (2010, September 08). International Peacekeeping. Retrieved April 9, 2019, from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/714002393?casa_token=JW9EFYQn1hMAAAAA:jLXwkAtPlkLrrHzrOSukj719nBrMZ-V18gdH5Y7iRbrBiay1d2IKXEVamupodAt8-ov0BNGAqV6VLA

Roberts, S., & Williams, J. (n.d.). After the Guns Fall Silent. Retrieved April 8, 2019, from https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=tBzsZmbFrsYC&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=afghanistan landmines&ots=-teHunquOU&sig=9mtphdpv__i_cQmQcvoj6LL1IW4#v=onepage&q=afghanistan landmines&f=false

Zahler, P., & Graham, P. (2001). War and Wildlife: The Afghanistan Conflict and its Effects on The Environment. Retrieved April 8, 2019, from http://snowleopardnetwork.org/bibliography/Zahler_2001.pdf

Citations— Joshua G

Afghanistan: Focus on landmine education for children - Afghanistan. (n.d.). Retrieved April 15, 2019, from https://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-focus-landmine-education-children

Ellis, D. (2000). The Breadwinner. Groundwood Books.

Mine Kafon - Callum Cooper - GE FOCUS FORWARD - YouTube. (n.d.). Retrieved April 15, 2019, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fz8vfd5FT-4&t=1s

Mine Kafon Drone - YouTube. (n.d.). Retrieved April 15, 2019, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BzT9gfbPQJw

Pace, E. (1995, February 27). Felix Ermacora Is Dead at 71; Austrian Human Rights Expert. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/1995/02/27/obituaries/felix-ermacora-is-dead-at-71-austrian-human-rights-expert.html

PFM-1. (2019). In Wikipedia. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PFM-1&oldid=887291179

Soviet Toys of Death. (1985, December 10). The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/1985/12/10/opinion/soviet-toys-of-death.html

TEDx Talks. (n.d.). The Never Ending Wars: Landmines and Unexploded Ordinance in Afghanistan | Sediq Rashid | TEDxKabul. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2qRwCoSzK7Q

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (n.d.). Critical Issues: Landmine Awareness.