J.Describe the fundamental concepts of information-seeking behaviors and how they should be considered when connecting individuals or groups with accurate, relevant and appropriate information
INTRODUCTION
There are two basic types of information seekers—those that require information for a specific purpose or need, such as work, health, or education, and those that desire information—they have an informational want, or an “everyday life information seeking (ELIS)” interest (Agosto & Hughes-Hassell, 2005, p. 141). Either way, it is an information professional’s obligation to not only help people find the information they need, but to help people become autonomous in their own seeking abilities. As a school librarian, it is essential to teach students the information skills necessary to effectively retrieve appropriate and relevant information, not simply convenient information. In order to do that, it is important to understand information seeking behaviors. One theme that seems to be universal in information seeking behaviors is the simpler, the better. Many people would rather search for the easiest and quickest answer, even if that information is subpar:
the ‘principle of least effort’ in human information seeking was demonstrated over and over. It may not seem surprising that people try to minimize effort in finding information, but the research demonstrated that ease of access and ease of use mattered more to people than the quality of the information they found (Bates, 2010, p. 2389).
Studies of various information communities have shown that there are different types of information seeking behavior models such as Dervin’s sensemaking, Kuhlthau’s Information Search Process (ISP), Chatman’s theory of information poverty, and Bates’ berrypicking model, all of which I will be discussing in this document.
BATES - BERRYPICKING
Marcia Bates’ berrypicking model was developed in the late 1980’s as an alternative to the singular view that information retrieval was as simple as matching the correct piece, or closely related pieces, of information to the user’s query, which would then satisfy their information needs. Through various studies conducted, Bates determined that the information seeking process was more complex. Thus the term “berrypicking” which is “a metaphorical construct that depicts information searching as an evolving activity during which an information seeker identifies and selects information objects similar to an individual picking huckleberries from a bush” (Savolainen, 2017, p. 581). As users come into contact with various pieces of information during their search query, their information need would invariably be refined and modified, and may send the user into an entirely different direction “each new piece of information encountered by users gives them new ideas and directions to follow and, consequently, a new conception of the query” (Savolainen, 2017, p. 583). For instance, if a student decided to do a research paper on how The Beatles got famous, and then after some initial research, they may decide they would rather focus on one of the individual members of the band, or why they on other famous musicians who died young, which could lead to addiction—Janis Joplin, Jimi Hendrix, Jim Morrison, or assassinations—MLK Jr., JFK Jr., Malcolm X, Lincoln, and the list goes on and on.
Thanks to the internet, this theory seems very logical and intuitive to anyone doing research today. However, it was quite revolutionary and forward thinking for the time “berrypicking heralded the typical Web surfing strategies yet to come by emphasising browsing and navigation as searching modes for which explicit queries do not have to exist” (Savolainen, 2017, p. 583). The internet as we know it today did not exist, and information seekers did not have the ability to access information as easily as can be done now. Most 21st century information seekers would not be satisfied with the first piece of information they encounter, or believe that there is only one piece of information to satisfy their information needs.
KUHLTHAU - INFORMATION SEARCH PROCESS (ISP)
Just as the berrypicking theory of information seeking behavior does not believe that there is a one size fits all method for obtaining information, the Information Search Process (ISP) is built upon the idea that the information seeker must assess numerous documents in an array of formats—in order to determine which information is relevant to their search “the first goal is to analyze an extensive range of multiple sources in various types of media” (Kuhlthau, 2013, p. 6). Therefore, the ISP is the process of an information seeker’s discovery and understanding of information that results in new knowledge. In other words, the ISP “is the user’s constructive activity of finding meaning from information in order to extend his or her state of knowledge on a particular problem or topic” (Kuhlthau, 1991, p.361).
Carol Kuhlthau’s Information Search Process (ISP) method is often referenced in studies related to information seeking behavior, particularly in adolescents conducting academic research assignments. In her studies of how secondary and higher academic students interact with information during the research process, she determined that often students struggle with the research process “writing a paper is complex and difficult for most people—indeed, the library research is inextricably bound with the understanding and gradual formulation of the thesis of the paper” (Bates, 2010, p. 2391). The research process is never as straightforward as choosing a topic, and finding relevant articles. In fact, initially, it often causes feelings of frustration and apprehension “uncertainty, a natural and necessary aspect of the early stages of ISP, causes discomfort and anxiety which in turn affects articulation of a problem and judgments of relevancy” (Kuhlthau, 1991, p. 364). Through her research, Kuhlthau (1991) concluded the information seeker goes through six stages: initiation, selection, exploration, formulation, collection, and presentation. Each stage, in turn “incorporates three realms: the affective (feelings), the cognitive (thoughts), and the physical (actions) common to each stage” (Kuhlthau, 1991, p. 366).
The initiation stage is when a person realizes they need to obtain information. They may be unsure of how to proceed, where to start looking, what resources to use, or even what resources are available to them, and they may be uncomfortable or too embarrassed to ask for help. When “a person first becomes aware of a lack of knowledge or understanding, feelings of uncertainty or apprehension are common” (Kuhlthau, 1991, p. 366). Selection refers to determining what subject is to be studied that will fit within the parameters of the assignment “thoughts center on weighing perspective topics against the criteria of personal interest, assignment requirements, information available, and time allotted” (Kuhlthau, 1991, p. 366). This stage often gives the information seeker fluctuating feelings, from nervousness or anxiety, to calm(er) or relief, once the topic is chosen “feelings of uncertainty often give way to optimism after the selection has been made and there is a readiness to begin the search” (Kuhlthau, 1991, p. 366).
It is common for the, feelings of misgivings to come back during the exploration stage, as information seekers begin to delve deeper into discerning appropriate information, they may have trouble finding relevant, or quality information, which can lead to “feelings of confusion, uncertainty, and doubt which frequently increase during this time” (Kuhlthau, 1991, p. 366). As information seekers explore their topic, navigating different information retrieval (IR) systems “thoughts center on becoming oriented and sufficiently informed about the topic to form a focus or a personal point of view” (Kuhlthau, 1991, p. 366). This leads to the next stage, formulation, which allows the information seeker to refine their topic. Thus bringing a sense of hopefulness to the information seeker “during this time, a change in feelings is commonly noted, with indications of increased confidence and clarity” (Kuhlthau, 1991, p. 367).
Collection is the stage in which information is gathered, assessed,
and analyzed, to determine if each source of information is appropriate to the scope of the assignment. In this stage “interaction between the user and the information system functions most effectively and efficiently” (Kuhlthau, 1991, p. 367). As information is collected, the information seeker is able to pinpoint specific information that is relevant to the assessment “with a clearer sense of direction, [the user] can specify the need for relevant, focused information to intermediaries and to systems, thereby facilitating a comprehensive search of all available resources” (Kuhlthau, 1991, p. 367). The final stage, presentation, is when the user should be able to create a clear picture of their findings, sharing their new knowledge “the task is to complete the search and prepare to present or otherwise use the findings” (Kuhlthau, 1991, p. 367).
DERVIN - SENSE MAKING
Like Kuhlthua’s ISP model, which relates information seeking behavior to gaining a new and/or deeper understanding of a particular topic, Brenda Dervin describes the act of obtaining information as sensemaking. Specifically, studying the ways people make sense of information they obtain or encounter, and how sensemaking depends on each individual’s interpretation of that information “information can be whatever an individual finds informing” (Bates, 2010, p. 2355). Dervin also describes the act of sensemaking in information seeking behavior as “the understanding of how an individual perceives a gap, how one defines the gap and what strategies are applied to bridge the gap” (Li & Reynolds, 2013, p. 1). In a study of how social media or social network sites (SNS) affect adolescents’ information seeking behavior, Moore (2016), referred to Dervin’s sensemaking theory to understand how teens use social media to gain information “the situation is a teen’s unfulfilled need, the uses or helps are cyber peers, and the gap is bridged by accessing the SNS that create a bridge to fill the gap” (p. 138). Moore goes on to determine that information seeking behavior through the lens of social media satisfies a tangible psychological need for adolescents “the social capital that is gained through this sensemaking process creates a physiological need that keeps teens coming back to fulfill future needs in the same way” (Moore, 2016, p. 138).
CHATMAN - LIFE IN THE ROUND
Akin to Dervin’s sensemaking, Elfreda Chatman set out to understand how various groups and individuals interact with different information sources, and how they relate that information to their lives. Chatman’s pioneering research on information seeking behaviors contributed to the understanding of how ordinary people, particularly people in socially and economically marginalized groups, seek everyday information. Chatman defined the marginalized person within these groups as “someone who lives in two small worlds of culture, which are very different from each other” (Fulton, 2010, p. 239). Chatman focused her research mainly on the information seeking behavior of women and other diminished groups such as janitorial workers at an academic institution, where Chatman found that “less than one-third of the janitors interviewed reported using the library” (Fulton, 2010, p. 241). Chatman’s work helped define the importance of libraries making a concerted effort to reach ordinary people and provide them with useful and effective information “it is the act of forming a world view that determines what is important in a world and what is trivial. Information is what brings meaning, purpose, order, and predictability to a social world” (Fulton, 2010, p. 242). One avenue that helped Chatman discover the information seeking behaviors of those groups she studied was identifying herself as a student. Chatman highlighted the importance of “assuming a role ‘appropriate’ to a given context to help the researcher gain entry to a group or situation...in her work with low-skilled workers she identified herself as a student, which placed her in a nonthreatening position” (Fulton, 2010, p. 244).
Chatman’s notion on the importance of ensuring the researcher’s role is one that lends itself to members of the information community feeling comfortable and safe enough to share their thoughts and feelings has become integral in the work of Library and Information Science (LIS). “Chatman’s exploration of the researcher in the field continues to influence the conceptualization of qualitative methodological approaches in LIS, such as observation” (Fulton, 2010, p. 245).
Chatman found that people react to information sharing related to whether you are an “insider” or “outsider.” In other words, there are “those who belong to a particular lifeworld and those who exist outside the boundaries of that lifeworld” (Fulton, 2010, p. 247). Many people in the different groups she studied were skeptical of outsiders, and preferred to obtain their information from other insiders. Through this lens, Chatman developed a “theory of information poverty” (Fulton, 2010, p. 246). This theory resulted in four concepts related to information poverty: secrecy, deception, risk taking, and situational relevance.
Secrecy is used as a defense mechanism in many situations, involving “concealment of information as a protective measure, which enables people to control aspects of their personal lives” (Fulton, 2010, p. 247). Furthermore, not revealing aspects of their personal lives was a way for people to “guard against disclosure” (Fulton, 2010, p. 247) and refrain from being “receptive to advice or information” (Fulton, 2010, p. 247). Deception, a term linked with secrecy, “was for Chatman a process meant to hide a reality by providing misleading and false information” (Fulton, 2010, p. 247).
Secrecy and deception were self-protective measures used by the people inside these small worlds, while the idea of risk taking led to the conclusion that “risk taking raised the question of trust and trustworthy sources in support of information sharing and adoption” (Fulton, 2010, p. 247). Chatman further concluded that “situational relevance...offered the potential for shaping a collective perception about ways in which new knowledge is brought into a social system” (Fulton, 2010, p. 247).
From these findings, Chatman further developed her Theory of Information Poverty, which outlined a “collective model of need” (Fulton, 2010, p. 247), based on six propositions.
Proposition 1: Chatman proposed that people who represent marginalized societies believe “themselves to be devoid of any sources that may help them” (Fulton, 2010, p. 247).
Proposition 2: Chatman determined that information poverty is related to division by social or economical class “the condition of information poverty is influenced by outsiders who withhold privileged access to information” (Fulton, 2010, p. 247).
Proposition 3: In the realm of information poverty, people develop “self-protective behaviors which are used in response to social norms” (Fulton, 2010, p. 248).
Proposition 4: The use of secrecy and self-deception are brought about by the perception that outsiders are not to be trusted “regarding the interest or ability of others to provide useful information” (Fulton, 2010, p. 248).
Proposition 5: People are hesitant to reveal information about themselves, afraid of leaving themselves vulnerable to outsiders, with the “perception that negative consequences outweigh benefits” (Fulton, 2010, p. 248).
Proposition 6: The presentation of information related to everyday information seeking should “be selectively introduced into the information world of poor people” (Fulton, 2010, p. 248).
Chatman’s work and theories were related to how information needs are individualistic and “specific to particular populations” (Fulton, 2010, p. 248). Chatman further defined how society impacted individual information seeking behavior “social norms determine accepted information as opposed to outside information sources” (Fulton, 2010, p. 248). Chatman’s research prompted her to urge information professionals to take the individual’s needs into consideration when attempting to provide information “the process of understanding begins with research that looks at their [special populations’] social environment and that defines information from their perspective” This perspective should be universally used by information professionals when dealing with providing information to any individual or group of individuals. It is only through truly understanding the information needs and wants of the individual, that a librarian will be able to provide effective and appropriate informational resources.
EVIDENCE
Info 200 Information Communities - Blog Post 3 - Info Community Behaviors & Needs
Info 200 requires all students to create a Blog using WordPress and then submit several different blog posts discussing information seeking behavior and their chosen information community. The community I chose was parents of children with life threatening food allergies. In this blog post, I wrote about the information seeking behaviors and needs of my particular community, such as information to support immediate, short range, and long range planning based on diagnosis. I discussed how this community’s information seeking is need based, as it is a life altering medical diagnosis for the individual with the allergies, as well as their caretaker. I believe that through this blog post my understanding of how various information communities seek information is evident. I realize that based on individual need, the information seeking behavior of an individual or group varies, however there are several universal avenues to obtain information such as consulting various print resources, websites, databases, social media, news outlets, and peers, that information seekers may use. I believe that through this understanding, I will be able to help students and faculty find the information they need to be successful.
Info 200 Information Communities - Blog Post 7 - Information About Information
This Info 200 blog post is related to information and the various ways people search for information. I believe that this post further shows my understanding of the ways people search for information, and what defines an information community. I am confident that by gaining an understanding of the ways in which information communities work, I will be able to guide students and staff in their information seeking endeavors. For instance, during my internship this past semester, when one of the 6th graders decided he was going to research the game Among Us, he was only getting results related to the U.S., nothing relevant to the game. I looked up the company that created the game, found it was called InnerSloth. I then advised to try searching InnerSloth AND among us, he was then able to retrieve exactly what he needed—relevant accurate information.
Info 200 Information Communities - Information Sources Review Assignment
For this assignment, we needed to conduct a review of the information sources we planned to use in our information communities research papers. By evaluating the sources I intended to use, I gained an understanding of the different types of sources available, and how to determine the quality of a source when conducting research. I believe this assignment will help me when evaluating sources for students and faculty, as well as in educating students about how to analyze sources independently in order to determine if the information is accurate, appropriate and relevant.
Info 200 Information Communities - Research Paper
This was the culmination of Info 200, where I put together all of the information I had learned throughout the semester to present my findings on my information community. In this assignment, I discuss several theories on information seeking behaviors, and how to apply these theories when providing services to my information community. I feel that I will be able to transfer this information to my work as a school librarian, helping students and staff locate and analyze information in a way that is appropriate and makes sense to them.
CONCLUSION
By knowing and understanding various types of information seeking behaviors such as those that have been outlined in this document, as well as having a clear understanding of individual needs, I believe that I will be able to connect students and staff in the school community with relevant, accurate, and appropriate information. Knowing that most students will likely suffer some form of anxiety related to information seeking, it will be my responsibility to explain that the process of conducting research can be messy, it is ok to demonstrate uncertainty, and that it is almost impossible to retrieve relevant information in the initial search, even for professionals. In order for students to choose library databases over google or wikipedia, it is important to minimize the amount of steps they need to take in order to reach the library’s databases. Knowing that many students will be tempted to search for the easiest and most convenient information, regardless of source, I will be cognizant of designing the library website with links to the databases to be as user friendly as possible.
References
Bates, M. (2009). Information. In M. Bates & M. N. Maack (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences, Third Edition (3rd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 2347-2360). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1081/E-ELIS3
Bates, M. (2010). Information behavior. In M. Bates & M. N. Maack (Eds.), Encyclopedia of library and information sciences (3rd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 2381-2391). CRC Press.
Fulton, C. (2010). An ordinary life in the round: Elfreda Annmary Chatman. Libraries & the Cultural Record, 45(2), 238-255. https://doi.org/10.1353/lac.0.0122
Kuhlthau, C. C. (1991). Inside the search process: Information seeking from the user's perspective. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 42, 361-371. https://doi-org.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(199106)42:5<361::AID-ASI6>3.0.CO;2-#
Kuhlthau, C. C. (2013). Inquiry inspires original research. School Library Monthly, 30(2), 5-8. https://search-ebscohost-com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lls&AN=95832205&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Li, X., & Reynolds, R. B. (2013). An exploratory study of middle school students' sensemaking in a collaborative game design educational project. Proceedings of the Association for Information Science & Technology, 50(1), 1-3. https://doi-org.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/10.1002/meet.14505001161
Moore, C. L. (2016). A Study of Social Media and its Influence on Teen Information Seeking Behaviors. The Serials Librarian, 71(2), 138-145. https://doi.org/10.1080/0361526X.2016.1209452
Savolainen, R. (2017). Berrypicking and information foraging: Comparison of two theoretical frameworks for studying exploratory search. Journal of Information Science, 44(5), 580-593. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165551517713168