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The Buddhist crisis, coined by Ambassador Lodge and the international press, is a six month long public dissention instigated by radical factions who infiltrated South Vietnam and inflamed the already volatile political climate in this struggling Southeast Asian country[1]. This resulted in the violent ouster of its first President and the subsequent turmoils that led to the frame-up Trial of Dang Sy and further escalations that caused the downfall of the Military Junta[1]. Ambassador Nolting called this brief, yet volatile period, the Buddhist Upheaval[10] while the United Nations fact finding mission called it the Buddhist Revolt.
To understand the cause of this situation, one needs to examine the beginning of this small country. The end of French colonial rule in Indochina marked the beginning of the United States effort to create a separate and strong state in Vietnam. The purpose of this nation building was to thwart Communist expansion. The United States would measure success by the Vietnamese government's ability to incorporate all elements of society into the new state. The Saigon regime repeatedly experienced great difficulty in commanding the allegiance of South Vietnam's Buddhists; these events were known as the Buddhist Crisis which cummulated into the downfall of President Diệm and the following regimes[9].
South Vietnam’s origins can be traced to the French colony of Cochinchina, a subdivision of French Indochina, which consisted of the southern third of Vietnam. After World War II, the Việt Minh, a combination of nationalists and communists, commanded by General Võ Nguyên Giáp, forced the Imperial French to surrender and Vietnam gained independence. In 1949, the Geneva Convention held in Paris divided Vietnam at the 17th Parallel. The North, led by Hô Chi Minh and the South, led by Emperor Bảo Đại. In 1954, a mass exodus of people from the North fled the extreme socialist policies of the communist government. For those who had no where to go, Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm relocated them just outside of Saigon, with the purpose of re-integrating them into the new southern environment and culture. In 1955, Emperor Bảo Đại abdicated and the first democratic election was set up to select the next leader. Though North Vietnam contested the election, Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm received more popular votes than other candidates such as House Delegate Trần Văn Hương. South Vietnam held elections for the General Assembly, which constituted all citizens, regardless of religions or political affiations [9]. Within a few years, South Vietnam production per capita grew both economically and socially. An average person annual earning was equivalent to $130 (USD) while production of sugar, rice and seafood doubled. Saigon grew into an international hub and dubbed "Pearl of the Far East" [8]. With economic helps from the United States, the First Republic embarked on various successful, non-violent land reforms that eliminated lan d serfdom from the monarchaic days, by purchasing lands from landowners and distributed them to working peasants. This won large majority people over, especially those who had experienced the violent and unjust land confistications practices from the North. The program lasted until funds eventually dried out [9]. The Human Border Initiative was another successful program to bring roads and military support to remote areas in Central Vietnam. The First Republic opened roads from cities to outskirt areas to strengthen towns security with frequent troops patrols and better business commerce [9].
Confucian has been in Vietnam since the beginining of history; influenced by Chinese culture, Vietnamese practiced ancestral worship. About 90% of Vietnamese worshipped their ancestors. Buddhism was introduced later and was most flourished under the Tran Dynasty during the 15th century. Buddhist pagodas were erected in honor of Kings and nobles. The king granted lands to build temples. Being a newer religion, the Catholic establishments were incorporated in the late 19th century. Under President Diệm, Catholics were appointed to positions of power at all levels of government. The Buddhists, who constituted a majority of Vietnamese, resented the preferential treatment given to the small Catholic minority in South Vietnam and those migrated from the North, they viewed Catholism generally enjoyed advantages throughout South Vietnamese society[1]. The late 1950s and early 1960s witnessed a growth in Buddhist institutions in the South, both secular and religious. The desire to gain influence in proportion to their numbers led to the emergence of a Buddhist community with a high level of political and social consciousness[2].
In April 1961, a treaty of amity and economic relations was signed with South Vietnam, and in December, President John F. Kennedy pledged to help South Vietnam maintain its independence. Subsequently, U.S. economic and military assistance to the First Republic increased significantly. In December 1961, the first U.S. troops, consisting of 400 uniformed army personnel, arrived in Saigon in order to operate two helicopter companies; these were non-combat units. A year later, U.S. military strength in Vietnam stood at 11,200[3].
The First Republic, meanwhile, had to deal with Communist aggression from the
North and to cope with growing unrest among South Vietnamese Buddhists and other religious groups. As the military influences and discontents grew stronger in the government, the First Republic implemented Strategic Hamlets, a successful program to control insurgents [9]. Unfortunately, this accomplishment from the civilian side of the government grew pale in comparison to anti-government agitation among the Buddhists that was especially strong. The notable incident was the killings of demonstrators at a state run radio station in Hue, central Vietnam. The government charged that the Buddhist groups had become infiltrated by politically hostile persons, including Communists. This contention was supported by outside observers, including a U.S. fact-finding team[3]. With the burning death of a Buddhist monk, massive media campaign of alleged Buddhist persecution, and other unfriendly remarks toward the Buddhists by Madame Nhu, the U.S. government withdrew support fo r the First Republic. The New York Times printed editorials from Reverend Donald Harrington and Dr. Erich Wulf indicated the First Republic persecuted the larger Buddhist populations through excessive military forces and oppressive policies. Drs. Harrington and Wulf claimed that Catholic Church in Vietnam obtained U.S. fundings to build universities and oppressed Buddhists[4][6]. These were refuted with other editorials from Reverend Patrick O'Connor. While Dr. Harrington was in the United States, Dr. Wulff was in Vietnam for two years. Father O'Connor was there considerably longer. Despite claims of religious favoritism, Catholic officers and generals occupied a fraction of overall census. Out of seventeen Cabinet members, only 5 were Catholics, out of nineteen generals, only four were Catholics; and out of fourteen special forces commanding officers, only four were Catholics. Buddhists did not have presence in armed forces chaplain because of their pacifist doctrines. Buddhist monks and nuns could not accompany troops to battle fields and could only function on certain days due to religious observance. The Catholic and Protestant chaplains; however, did not have such restrictions. Buddhists did not have special centers for leperosies or other infectious diseases. Catholic missions set up shelter centers for indiginous people to Vietnam, collectively called Viet Toc. Four Catholic universities and numerous schools, operated in cities and remote areas in Vietnam, ran with donations from Catholic churches in Vietnam, and from Germany and the United States. These were chaired by non-Catholic state officials. Two state-run Buddhist universities, operated in Saigon, were under the Buddhist hierarchy control. [5][7] As the First Republic shifted to harsher policies in dealing with Communism, nine millions piases, or $1.6 million USD, was diverted to build Buddhist temples to accomodate the Buddhist population growth of 32%[8].
Although the majority of Buddhist did not take part directly, certain radical Buddhist leadership's opposition to the Saigon regime was responsible for the November 2, 1963, coup that overthrew and killed President Diệm[2][9].
Some sources indicated the U.S. government was aware of the coup but did little[9][10] or nothing to prevent it[3]; while some sources indicated that the coup was encouraged and sponsored[9][11].
In 1971, at the height of the Second Republic and all religious sects and military factions consolidated, President Ngo Dinh Diem was declared a National hero (Vietnamese: Vị Quốc Vong Thân) for his life long goal to unite South Vietnam. A large memorial site was built at Mạc Đĩnh Chi National Cemetery and on the eve of his death in November, Buddhist monks gathered to pray in Sanskrit chants and Roman Catholic clergies performed Latin mass, a pre-Vatican II mandate [9].
This closed a sad chapter in the turbulent history (Vietnamese: Biến Động Chính Trị) of South Vietnam.
References:
1. Lodge in Vietnam: A Patriot Abroad. Blair, Anne E. Yale University Press (1995).
2. The 1966 Buddhist Crisis in South Vietnam
4. Letters to The Times; Diem Denounced on Monk's Death. New York Times - July 1, 1963
5. Letters to The Times; Catholic Church in Vietnam. New York Times - July 20, 1963
7. Letters to The Times; Catholic Church in Vietnam. New York Times - Aug 28, 1963
8. The Cross and the Bo De-tree: Catholics and Buddhists in Vietnam? Piero Gheddo - (1970).
9. Triumph Forsaken: the Vietnam war, 1954-1965. Mark Moyar (2006).
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