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Social media marketing

Social media

Social media are interactive computer-mediated technologies that facilitate the creation or sharing of information, ideas, career interests and other forms of expression via virtual communities and networks.[1][2] The variety of stand-alone and built-in Social media services currently available introduces challenges of definition; however, there are some common features:[2] Users usually access Social media services via web-based apps on desktops and laptops, or download services that offer Social media functionality to their mobile devices (e.g., smartphones and tablets).

As users engage with these electronic services, they create highly interactive platforms through which individuals, communities, and organizations can share, co-create, discuss, participate and modify user-generated content or self-curated content posted online.

Networks formed through Social media change the way groups of people interact and communicate or stand with the votes.

They "introduce substantial and pervasive changes to communication between organizations, communities, and individuals."[1] These changes are the focus of the emerging fields of technoself studies.

Social media differ from paper-based media (e.g., magazines and newspapers) and traditional electronic media such as TV broadcasting, Radio broadcasting in many ways, including quality,[5] reach, frequency, interactivity, usability, immediacy, and performance.

Social media outlets operate in a dialogic transmission system (many sources to many receivers).[6] This is in contrast to traditional media which operates under a mono-logic transmission model (one source to many receivers), such as a newspaper which is delivered to many subscribers, or a radio station which broadcasts the same programs to an entire city.

Some of the most popular Social media websites, with over 100 million registered users, include Facebook (and its associated Facebook Messenger), TikTok, WeChat, Instagram, QZone, Weibo, Twitter, Tumblr, Baidu Tieba, LinkedIn and VK.

Other popular platforms that are sometimes referred to as Social media services (differing on interpretation) include YouTube, QQ, Quora, Telegram, WhatsApp, LINE, Snapchat, Pinterest, Viber, Reddit, Discord and more.

Observers have noted a wide range of positive and negative impacts of Social media use.

Social media can help to improve an individual's sense of connectedness with real or online communities and can be an effective communication (or marketing) tool for corporations, entrepreneurs, non-profit organizations, advocacy groups, political parties, and governments.

Social media may have roots in the 1840s introduction of the telegraph, which connected the United States.[7] The PLATO system launched in 1960, which was developed at the University of Illinois and subsequently commercially marketed by Control Data Corporation, offered early forms of Social media features with 1973-era innovations such as Notes, PLATO's message-forum application; TERM-talk, its instant-messaging feature; Talkomatic, perhaps the first online chat room; News Report, a crowd-sourced online newspaper and blog; and Access Lists, enabling the owner of a note file or other application to limit access to a certain set of users, for example, only friends, classmates, or co-workers.

ARPANET, which first came online in 1967, had by the late 1970s developed a rich cultural exchange of non-government/business ideas and communication, as evidenced by the network etiquette (or "netiquette") described in a 1982 handbook on computing at MIT's Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.[8] ARPANET evolved into the Internet following the publication of the first Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) specification, .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:12px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}RFC 675 (Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program), written by Vint Cerf, Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine in 1974.[9] This became the foundation of Usenet, conceived by Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis in 1979 at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and Duke University, and established in 1980.

A precursor of the electronic bulletin board system (BBS), known as Community Memory, had already appeared by 1973.

True electronic bulletin board systems arrived with the Computer Bulletin Board System in Chicago, which first came online on February 16, 1978.

Before long, most major cities had more than one BBS running on TRS-80, Apple II, Atari, IBM PC, Commodore 64, Sinclair, and similar personal computers.

The IBM PC was introduced in 1981, and subsequent models of both Mac computers and PCs were used throughout the 1980s.

Multiple modems, followed by specialized telecommunication hardware, allowed many users to be online simultaneously.

Compuserve, Prodigy and AOL were three of the largest BBS companies and were the first to migrate to the Internet in the 1990s.

Between the mid-1980s and the mid-1990s, BBSes numbered in the tens of thousands in North America alone.[10] Message forums (a specific structure of Social media) arose with the BBS phenomenon throughout the 1980s and early 1990s.

When the World Wide Web (WWW, or "the web") was added to the Internet in the mid-1990s, message forums migrated to the web, becoming Internet forums, primarily due to cheaper per-person access as well as the ability to handle far more people simultaneously than telco modem banks.

Digital imaging and semiconductor image sensor technology facilitated the development and rise of Social media.[11] Advances in metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) semiconductor device fabrication, reaching smaller micron and then sub-micron levels during the 1980s–1990s, led to the development of the NMOS (n-type MOS) active-pixel sensor (APS) at Olympus in 1985,[12][13] and then the complementary MOS (CMOS) active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor) at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in 1993.[12][14] CMOS sensors enabled the mass proliferation of digital cameras and camera phones, which bolstered the rise of Social media.[11] An important feature of Social media is digital media data compression,[15][16] due to the impractically high memory and bandwidth requirements of uncompressed media.[17] The most important compression algorithm is the discrete cosine transform (DCT),[17][18] a lossy compression technique that was first proposed by Nasir Ahmed in 1972.[19] DCT-based compression standards include the H.26x and MPEG video coding standards introduced from 1988 onwards,[18] and the JPEG image compression standard introduced in 1992.[20][15] JPEG was largely responsible for the proliferation of digital images and digital photos which lie at the heart of Social media,[15] and the MPEG standards did the same for digital video content on Social media.[16] The JPEG image format is used more than a billion times on social networks every day, as of 2014.[21][22] GeoCities was one of the World Wide Web's earliest social networking websites, appearing in November 1994, followed by Classmates in December 1995 and SixDegrees in May 1997.

According to CBS news, SixDegrees is "widely considered to be the very first social networking site", as it included "profiles, friends lists and school affiliations" that could be used by registered users.[23] Open Diary was launched in October 1998; LiveJournal in April 1999; Ryze in October 2001; Friendster in March 2003; the corporate and job-oriented site LinkedIn in May 2003; hi5 in June 2003; MySpace in August 2003; Orkut in January 2004; Facebook in February 2004; YouTube in February 2005; Yahoo! 360° in March 2005; Bebo in July 2005; the text-based service Twitter, in which posts, called "tweets", were limited to 140 characters, in July 2006; Tumblr in February 2007; and Google+ in July 2011.[24][25][26] The variety of evolving stand-alone and built-in Social media services makes it challenging to define them.[2] However, marketing and Social media experts broadly agree that Social media includes the following 13 types of Social media:[27] The idea that Social media are defined simply by their ability to bring people together has been seen as too broad, as this would suggest that fundamentally different technologies like the telegraph and telephone are also Social media.[28] The terminology is unclear, with some early researchers referring to Social media as social networks or social networking services in the mid 2000s.[4] A more recent paper from 2015[2] reviewed the prominent literature in the area and identified four common features unique to then-current Social media services: In 2019, Merriam-Webster defined "Social media" as "forms of electronic communication (such as websites for social networking and microblogging) through which users create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, and other content (such as videos)"[29] The development of Social media started off with simple platforms such as sixdegrees.com.[30] Unlike instant messaging clients, such as ICQ and AOL's AIM, or chat clients like IRC, iChat or Chat Television, sixdegrees.com was the first online business that was created for real people, using their real names.

The first social networks were short-lived, however, because their users lost interest.

The Social Network Revolution has led to the rise of networking sites.

Research[31] shows that the audience spends 22% of their time on social networks, thus proving how popular Social media platforms have become.

This increase is because of the widespread daily use of smartphones.[32] Social media are used to document memories, learn about and explore things, advertise oneself and form friendships as well as the growth of ideas from the creation of blogs, podcasts, videos, and gaming sites.[33] Networked individuals create, edit, and manage content in collaboration with other networked individuals.

This way they contribute to expanding knowledge.

Wikis are examples of collaborative content creation.

Mobile Social media refer to the use of Social media on mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers.

Mobile Social media are a useful application of mobile marketing because the creation, exchange, and circulation of user-generated content can assist companies with marketing research, communication, and relationship development.[34] Mobile Social media differ from others because they incorporate the current location of the user (location-sensitivity) or the time delay between sending and receiving messages (time-sensitivity).

According to Andreas Kaplan, mobile Social media applications can be differentiated among four types:[34] Some Social media sites have potential for content posted there to spread virally over social networks.

The term is an analogy to the concept of viral infections, which can spread rapidly from person to person.

In a Social media context, content or websites that are "viral" (or which "go viral") are those with a greater likelihood that users will reshare content posted (by another user) to their social network, leading to further sharing.

In some cases, posts containing popular content or fast-breaking news have been rapidly shared and reshared by a huge number of users.

Many Social media sites provide specific functionality to help users reshare content, such as Twitter's retweet button, Pinterest's pin function, Facebook's share option or Tumblr's reblog function.

Businesses have a particular interest in viral marketing tactics because a viral campaign can achieve widespread advertising coverage (particularly if the viral reposting itself makes the news) for a fraction of the cost of a traditional marketing campaign, which typically uses printed materials, like newspapers, magazines, mailings, and billboards, and television and radio commercials.

Nonprofit organizations and activists may have similar interests in posting content on Social media sites with the aim of it going viral.

A popular component and feature of Twitter is retweeting.

Twitter allows other people to keep up with important events, stay connected with their peers, and can contribute in various ways throughout Social media.[35] When certain posts become popular, they start to get retweeted over and over again, becoming viral.

Hashtags can be used in tweets, and can also be used to take count of how many people have used that hashtag.

Social media can enable companies to get in the form of greater market share and increased audiences.[36] Internet bots have been developed which facilitate Social media marketing.

Bots are automated programs that run over the Internet.[37] Chatbots and social bots are programmed to mimic natural human interactions such as liking, commenting, following, and unfollowing on Social media platforms.[38] A new industry of bot providers has been created.[39] Social bots and chatbots have created an analytical crisis in the marketing industry[40] as they make it difficult to differentiate between human interactions and automated bot interactions.[40] Some bots are negatively affecting their marketing data causing a "digital cannibalism" in Social media marketing.

Additionally, some bots violate the terms of use on many social mediums such as Instagram, which can result in profiles being taken down and banned.[41] "Cyborgs", a combination of a human and a bot,[42][43] are used to spread fake news or create a marketing "buzz".[44] Cyborgs can be bot-assisted humans or human-assisted bots.[45] An example is a human who registers an account for which they set automated programs to post, for instance, tweets, during their absence.[45] From time to time, the human participates to tweet and interact with friends.

Cyborgs make it easier to spread fake news, as it blends automated activity with human input.[45] When the automated accounts are publicly identified, the human part of the cyborg is able to take over and could protest that the account has been used manually all along.

Such accounts try to pose as real people; in particular, the number of their friends or followers should be resembling that of a real person.

There has been rapid growth in the number of U.S.

patent applications that cover new technologies related to Social media, and the number of them that are published has been growing rapidly over the past five years.

There are now over 2000 published patent applications.[47] As many as 7000 applications may be currently on file including those that haven't been published yet.

Only slightly over 100 of these applications have issued as patents, however, largely due to the multi-year backlog in examination of business method patents, patents which outline and claim new methods of doing business.[48] According to Statista, in 2019, it is estimated that there will be around 2.77 billion Social media users around the globe, up from 2.46 billion in 2017.[49] In 2020, there were 3.8 billion Social media users.[50] The following list of the leading social networks shows the number of active users as of April 2020 (figures for Baidu Tieba, LinkedIn, Viber and Discord are from October 2019).[51] (in millions) According to a survey conducted by Pew Research in 2018, Facebook and YouTube dominate the Social media landscape, as notable majorities of U.S.

adults use each of these sites.

At the same time, younger Americans (especially those ages 18 to 24) stand out for embracing a variety of platforms and using them frequently.

Some 78% of 18 - 24-year-old youngsters use Snapchat, and a sizeable majority of these users (71%) visit the platform multiple times per day.

Similarly, 71% of Americans in this age group now use Instagram and close to half (45%) are Twitter users.

However, Facebook remains the primary platform for most Americans.

Roughly two-thirds of U.S.

adults (68%) now report that they are Facebook users, and roughly three-quarters of those users access Facebook on a daily basis.

With the exception of those 65 and older, a majority of Americans across a wide range of demographic groups now use Facebook.[52] After this rapid growth, the number of new U.S.

Facebook accounts created has plateaued, with not much observable growth in the 2016-18 period.[53] Governments may use Social media to (for example):[54] The high distribution of Social media in the private environment drives companies to deal with the application possibilities of Social media on Marketplace actors can use social-media tools for marketing research, communication, sales promotions/discounts, informal employee-learning/organizational development, relationship development/loyalty programs,[34] and e-Commerce.

Often Social media can become a good source of information and/or explanation of industry trends for a business to embrace change.

Trends in social-media technology and usage change rapidly, making it crucial for businesses to have a set of guidelines that can apply to many Social media platforms.[56] Companies are increasingly[quantify] using social-media monitoring tools to monitor, track, and analyze online conversations on the Web about their brand or products or about related topics of interest.

This can prove useful in public relations management and advertising-campaign tracking, allowing analysts to measure return on investment for their Social media ad spending, competitor-auditing, and for public engagement.

Tools range from free, basic applications to subscription-based, more in-depth tools.

Financial industries utilize the power of Social media as a tool for analysing sentiment of financial markets.

These range from the marketing of financial products, gaining insights into market sentiment, future market predictions, and as a tool to identify insider trading.[57] Social media becomes effective through a process called[by whom?] "building social authority".[58] One of the foundation concepts in Social media has become[when?] that one cannot completely control one's message through Social media but rather one can simply begin to participate in the "conversation" expecting that one can achieve a significant influence in that conversation.[59] Social media "mining" is a type of data mining, a technique of analyzing data to detect patterns.

Social media mining is a process of representing, analyzing, and extracting actionable patterns from data collected from people's activities on Social media.

Google mines data in many ways including using an algorithm in Gmail to analyze information in emails.

This use of the information will then affect the type of advertisements shown to the user when they use Gmail.

Facebook has partnered with many data mining companies such as Datalogix and BlueKai to use customer information for targeted advertising.[60] Ethical questions of the extent to which a company should be able to utilize a user's information have been called "big data".[60] Users tend to click through Terms of Use agreements when signing up on Social media platforms, and they do not know how their information will be used by companies.

This leads to questions of privacy and surveillance when user data is recorded.

Some Social media outlets have added capture time and Geotagging that helps provide information about the context of the data as well as making their data more accurate.

Social media has a range of uses in political processes and activities.

Social media have been championed as allowing anyone with an Internet connection to become a content creator[61] and empowering their users.[62] The role of Social media in democratizing media participation, which proponents herald as ushering in a new era of participatory democracy, with all users able to contribute news and comments, may fall short of the ideals, given that many often follow like-minded individuals, as noted by Philip Pond and Jeff Lewis.[63] Online media audience members are largely passive consumers, while content creation is dominated by a small number of users who post comments and write new content.[64]:78 Younger generations are becoming more involved in politics due to the increase of political news posted on Social media.

Political campaigns are targeting Millennials online via Social media posts in hope that they will increase their political engagement.[65] Social media was influential in the widespread attention given to the revolutionary outbreaks in the Middle East and North Africa during 2011.[66][67][68] During the Tunisian revolution in 2011, people used Facebook to organize meetings and protests.[61] However, there is debate about the extent to which Social media facilitated this kind of political change.[69] Social media footprints of candidates have grown during the last decade and the 2016 United States Presidential election provides a good example.

Dounoucos et al.

noted that Twitter use by the candidates was unprecedented during that election cycle.[70] Most candidates in the United States have a Twitter account.[71] The public has also increased their reliance on Social media sites for political information.[70] In the European Union, Social media has amplified political messages.[72] One challenge is that militant groups have begun to see Social media as a major organizing and recruiting tool.[73] The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, also known as ISIL, ISIS, and Daesh, has used Social media to promote its cause.

In 2014, #AllEyesonISIS went viral on Arabic Twitter.[74] ISIS produces an online magazine named the Islamic State Report to recruit more fighters.[75] Social media platforms have been weaponized by state-sponsored cyber groups to attack governments in the United States, European Union, and Middle East.

Although phishing attacks via email are the most commonly used tactic to breach government networks, phishing attacks on Social media rose 500% in 2016.[76] Some employers examine job applicants' Social media profiles as part of the hiring assessment.

This issue raises many ethical questions that some consider an employer's right and others consider discrimination.

Many Western European countries have already implemented laws that restrict the regulation of Social media in the workplace.

States including Arkansas, California, Colorado, Illinois, Maryland, Michigan, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, Utah, Washington, and Wisconsin have passed legislation that protects potential employees and current employees from employers that demand that they provide their usernames and/or passwords for any Social media accounts.[77] Use of Social media by young people has caused significant problems for some applicants who are active on Social media when they try to enter the job market.

A survey of 17,000 young people in six countries in 2013 found that 1 in 10 people aged 16 to 34 have been rejected for a job because of online comments they made on Social media websites.[78] It is not only an issue in the workplace but an issue in post-secondary school admissions as well.

There have been situations where students have been forced to give up their Social media passwords to school administrators.[79] There are inadequate laws to protect a student's Social media privacy, and organizations such as the ACLU are pushing for more privacy protection, as it is an invasion.

They urge students who are pressured to give up their account information to tell the administrators to contact a parent or lawyer before they take the matter any further.

Although they are students, they still have the right to keep their password-protected information private.[80] Before Social media,[81] admissions officials in the United States used SAT and other standardized test scores, extra-curricular activities, letters of recommendation, and high school report cards to determine whether to accept or deny an applicant.

In the 2010s, while colleges and universities still use these traditional methods to evaluate applicants, these institutions are increasingly accessing applicants' Social media profiles to learn about their character and activities.

According to Kaplan, Inc, a corporation that provides higher education preparation, in 2012 27% of admissions officers used Google to learn more about an applicant, with 26% checking Facebook.[82] Students whose Social media pages include offensive jokes or photos, racist or homophobic comments, photos depicting the applicant engaging in illegal drug use or drunkenness, and so on, may be screened out from admission processes.

Social media has been used extensively in civil and criminal investigations.[83] It has also been used to assist in searches for missing persons.[84] Police departments often make use of official Social media accounts to engage with the public, publicize police activity, and burnish law enforcement's image;[85][86] conversely, video footage of citizen-documented police brutality and other misconduct has sometimes been posted to Social media.[86] In the United States U.S.

Immigration and Customs Enforcement identifies and track individuals via Social media, and also has apprehended some people via Social media based sting operations.[87] U.S.

Customs and Border Protection (also known as CPB) and the United States Department of Homeland Security use Social media data as influencing factors during the visa process, and continue to monitor individuals after they have entered the country.[88] CPB officers have also been documented performing searches of electronics and Social media behavior at the border, searching both citizens and non-citizens without first obtaining a warrant.[88] Social media comments and images are being used in a range of court cases including employment law, child custody/child support and insurance disability claims.

After an Apple employee criticized his employer on Facebook, he was fired.

When the former employee sued Apple for unfair dismissal, the court, after seeing the man's Facebook posts, found in favor of Apple, as the man's Social media comments breached Apple's policies.[89] After a heterosexual couple broke up, the man posted "violent rap lyrics from a song that talked about fantasies of killing the rapper's ex-wife" and made threats against him.

The court found him guilty and he was sentenced to jail.[89] In a disability claims case, a woman who fell at work claimed that she was permanently injured; the employer used her Social media posts of her travels and activities to counter her claims.[89] Courts do not always admit Social media evidence, in part because screenshots can be faked or tampered with.[90] Judges are taking emojis into account to assess statements made on Social media; in one Michigan case where a person alleged that another person had defamed them in an online comment, the judge disagreed, noting that there was an emoji after the comment which indicated that it was a joke.[90] In a 2014 case in Ontario against a police officer regarding alleged assault of a protester during the G20 summit, the court rejected the Crown's application to use a digital photo of the protest that was anonymously posted online, because there was no metadata proving when the photo was taken and it could have been digitally altered.[90] Social media marketing has increased due to the growing active user rates on Social media sites.

For example, Facebook currently has 2.2 billion users, Twitter has 330 million active users and Instagram has 800 million users.[91] One of the main uses is to interact with audiences to create awareness of their brand or service, with the main idea of creating a two-way communication system where the audience and/or customers can interact back; providing feedback as just one example.[92] Social media can be used to advertise; placing an advert on Facebook's Newsfeed, for example, can allow a vast number of people to see it or targeting specific audiences from their usage to encourage awareness of the product or brand.

Users of Social media are then able to like, share and comment on the advert, becoming message senders as they can keep passing the advert's message on to their friends and onwards.[93] The use of new media put consumers on the position of spreading opinions, sharing experience, and has shift power from organization to consumers for it allows transparency and different opinions to be heard.[94] media marketing has to keep up with all the different platforms.

They also have to keep up with the ongoing trends that are set by big influencers and draw many peoples attention.

The type of audience a business is going for will determine the Social media site they use.[3] Social media personalities have been employed by marketers to promote products online.

Research shows that digital endorsements seem to be successfully targeting Social media users,[95] especially younger consumers who have grown up in the digital age.[96] Celebrities with large Social media followings, such as Kylie Jenner, regularly endorse products to their followers on their Social media pages.[97] In 2013, the United Kingdom Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) began to advise celebrities and sports stars to make it clear if they had been paid to tweet about a product or service by using the hashtag #spon or #ad within tweets containing endorsements.

The practice of harnessing Social media personalities to market or promote a product or service to their following is commonly referred to as Influencer Marketing.

The Cambridge Dictionary defines an "influencer" as any person (personality, blogger, journalist, celebrity) who has the ability to affect the opinions, behaviors, or purchases of others through the use of Social media.[98] Companies such as fast food franchise Wendy's have used humor to advertise their products by poking fun at competitors such as McDonald's and Burger King.[99] Other companies such as Juul have used hashtags to promote themselves and their products.[100] On Social media, consumers are exposed to the purchasing practices of peers through messages from a peer's account, which may be peer-written.

Such messages may be part of an interactive marketing strategy involving modeling, reinforcement, and social interaction mechanisms.[101] A 2011 study focusing on peer communication through Social media described how communication between peers through Social media can affect purchase intentions: a direct impact through conformity, and an indirect impact by stressing product engagement.[101] The study indicated that Social media communication between peers about a product had a positive relationship with product engagement.[101] Signals from Social media are used to assess academic publications,[102] as well as for evaluation of the quality of the Wikipedia articles and their sources.[103] Data from Social media can be also used for different scientific approaches.

One of the studies examined how millions of users interact with socially shared news and show that individuals’ choices played a stronger role in limiting exposure to cross-cutting content.[104] Another study found that most of the health science students acquiring academic materials from others through Social media.[105] Massive amounts of data from social platforms allows scientists and machine learning researchers to extract insights and build product features.[106] Using Social media can help to shape patterns of deception in resumes.[107] In the United States, 81% of users look online for news of the weather, first and foremost, with the percentage seeking national news at 73%, 52% for sports news, and 41% for entertainment or celebrity news.

According to CNN, in 2010 75% of people got their news forwarded through e-mail or Social media posts, whereas 37% of people shared a news item via Facebook or Twitter.[108] Facebook and Twitter make news a more participatory experience than before as people share news articles and comment on other people's posts.

Rainie and Wellman have argued that media making now has become a participation work,[109] which changes communication systems.

However, 27% of respondents worry about the accuracy of a story on a blog.[64] From a 2019 poll, Pew Research Center found that Americans are wary about the ways that Social media sites share news and certain content.[110] This wariness of accuracy is on the rise as Social media sites are increasingly exploited by aggregated new sources which stitch together multiple feeds to develop plausible correlations.

Hemsley, Jacobson et al.

refer to this phenomenon as "pseudoknowledge" which develop false narratives and fake news that are supported through general analysis and ideology rather than facts.[111] Social media as a news source is further questioned as spikes in evidence surround major news events such as was captured in the United States 2016 presidential election.[112] News media and television journalism have been a key feature in the shaping of American collective memory for much of the twentieth century.[113][114] Indeed, since the United States' colonial era, news media has influenced collective memory and discourse about national development and trauma.

In many ways, mainstream journalists have maintained an authoritative voice as the storytellers of the American past.

Their documentary style narratives, detailed exposes, and their positions in the present make them prime sources for public memory.

Specifically, news media journalists have shaped collective memory on nearly every major national event – from the deaths of social and political figures to the progression of political hopefuls.

Journalists provide elaborate descriptions of commemorative events in U.S.

history and contemporary popular cultural sensations.

Many Americans learn the significance of historical events and political issues through news media, as they are presented on popular news stations.[115] However, journalistic influence is growing less important, whereas social networking sites such as Facebook, YouTube and Twitter, provide a constant supply of alternative news sources for users.

As social networking becomes more popular among older and younger generations, sites such as Facebook and YouTube, gradually undermine the traditionally authoritative voices of news media.

For example, American citizens contest media coverage of various social and political events as they see fit, inserting their voices into the narratives about America's past and present and shaping their own collective memories.[116][117] An example of this is the public explosion of the Trayvon Martin shooting in Sanford, Florida.

News media coverage of the incident was minimal until Social media users made the story recognizable through their constant discussion of the case.

Approximately one month after the fatal shooting of Trayvon Martin, its online coverage by everyday Americans garnered national attention from mainstream media journalists, in turn exemplifying media activism.

In some ways, the spread of this tragic event through alternative news sources parallels that of Emmitt Till – whose murder by lynching in 1955 became a national story after it was circulated in African-American and Communist newspapers.

Social media is used to fulfill perceived social needs, but not all needs can be fulfilled by Social media.[118] For example, lonely individuals are more likely to use the Internet for emotional support than those who are not lonely.[119] Sherry Turkle explores these issues in her book Alone Together as she discusses how people confuse Social media usage with authentic communication.

She posits that people tend to act differently online and are less afraid to hurt each other's feelings.

Additionally, studies on who interacts on the internet have shown that extraversion and openness have a positive relationship with Social media, while emotional stability has a negative sloping relationship with Social media.[120] Some online behaviors can cause stress and anxiety, due to the permanence of online posts, the fear of being hacked, or of universities and employers exploring Social media pages.

Turkle also speculates that people are beginning to prefer texting to face-to-face communication, which can contribute to feelings of loneliness.[121] Some researchers have also found that exchanges that involved direct communication and reciprocation of messages correlated with less feelings of loneliness.

However, passively using Social media without sending or receiving messages does not make people feel less lonely unless they were lonely to begin with.[122] Checking updates on friends' activities on Social media is associated with the "fear of missing out" (FOMO), the "pervasive apprehension that others might be having rewarding experiences from which one is absent".[123] FOMO is a social anxiety[124] characterized by "a desire to stay continually connected with what others are doing".[123] It has negative influences on people's psychological health and well-being because it could contribute to negative mood and depressed feelings.[125] Concerns have been raised[by whom?] about online "stalking" or "creeping" of people on Social media, which means looking at the person's "timeline, status updates, tweets, and online bios" to find information about them and their activities.[126] While Social media creeping is common, it is considered to be poor form to admit to a new acquaintance or new date that you have looked through his or her Social media posts, particularly older posts, as this will indicate that you were going through their old history.[126] A sub-category of creeping is creeping ex-partners' Social media posts after a breakup to investigate if there is a new partner or new dating; this can lead to preoccupation with the ex, rumination and negative feelings, all of which postpone recovery and increase feelings of loss.[127] Catfishing has become more prevalent since the advent of Social media.

Relationships formed with catfish can lead to actions such as supporting them with money and catfish will typically make excuses as to why they cannot meet up or be viewed on camera.[128] According to research from UCLA, teenage brains' reward circuits were more active when teenager's photos were liked by more peers.

This has both positive and negative features.

Teenagers and young adults befriend people online whom they do not know well.

This opens the possibility of a child being influenced by people who engage in risk-taking behavior.

When children have several hundred online connections there is no way for parents to know who they are.[129] The more time people spend on Facebook, the less satisfied they feel about their life.[130] Self-presentational theory explains that people will consciously manage their self-image or identity related information in social contexts.

When people are not accepted or are criticized online they feel emotional pain.[131] This may lead to some form of online retaliation such as online bullying.[132] Trudy Hui Hui Chua and Leanne Chang's article, "Follow Me and Like My Beautiful Selfies: Singapore Teenage Girls' Engagement in Self-Presentation and Peer Comparison on Social media"[133] states that teenage girls manipulate their self-presentation on Social media to achieve a sense of beauty that is projected by their peers.

These authors also discovered that teenage girls compare themselves to their peers on Social media and present themselves in certain ways in effort to earn regard and acceptance, which can actually lead to problems with self-confidence and self-satisfaction.[133] Users also tend to seg

Social marketing

Social marketing has the primary goal of achieving "social good".

Traditional commercial marketing aims are primarily financial, though they can have positive social effects as well.

In the context of public health, Social marketing would promote general health, raise awareness and induce changes in behaviour.

Social marketing has been a large industry for some time now and was originally done with newspapers and billboards, but similar to commercial marketing has adapted to the modern world.

The most common use of Social marketing in today's society is through social media.[1].[2] However, to see Social marketing as only the use of standard commercial marketing practices to achieve non-commercial goals is an oversimplified view.

Social marketing seeks to develop and integrate marketing concepts with other approaches to social change.

Social marketing aims to influence behaviors that benefit individuals and communities for the greater social good.

The goal is to deliver competition-sensitive and segmented social change programs that are effective, efficient, equitable and sustainable.[3] Increasingly, Social marketing is described as having "two parents." The "social parent" uses social science and social policy approaches.

The "marketing parent" uses commercial and public sector marketing approaches.[4] Recent years have also witnessed a broader focus.

Social marketing now goes beyond influencing individual behaviour.

It promotes socio-cultural and structural change relevant to social issues.[5] Consequently, Social marketing scholars are beginning to advocate for a broader definition of Social marketing: "Social marketing is the application of marketing principles to enable individual and collective ideas and actions in the pursuit of effective, efficient, equitable, fair and sustained social transformation".

The new emphasis gives equal weight to the effects (efficiency and effectiveness) and the process (equity, fairness and sustainability) of Social marketing programs.[6] Together with a new Social marketing definition that focuses on social transformation, there is also an argument that "a systems approach is needed if Social marketing is to address the increasingly complex and dynamic social issues facing contemporary societies"[7][8] The first documented evidence of the deliberate use of marketing to address a social issue comes from a 1963 reproductive health program led by K.

T.

Chandy at the Indian Institute of Management in Calcutta, India.

Chandy and colleagues proposed, and subsequently implemented, a national family planning program with high quality, government brand condoms distributed and sold throughout the country at low cost.

The program included an integrated consumer marketing campaign run with active point of sale promotion.

Retailers were trained to sell the product aggressively, and a new organization was created to implement the program.[9] In developing countries, the use of Social marketing expanded to HIV prevention, control of childhood diarrhea (through the use of oral re-hydration therapies), malaria control and treatment, point-of-use water treatment, on-site sanitation methods and the provision of basic health services.[10] Health promotion campaigns began applying Social marketing in practice in the 1980s.

In the United States, The National High Blood Pressure Education Program[11] and the community heart disease prevention studies in Pawtucket, Rhode Island and at Stanford University[12] demonstrated the effectiveness of the approach to address population-based risk factor behaviour change.

Notable early developments also took place in Australia.

These included the Victoria Cancer Council developing its anti-tobacco campaign "Quit" (1988) and "SunSmart" (1988), its campaign against skin cancer which had the slogan "Slip! Slop! Slap!"[13] Since the 1980s, the field has rapidly expanded around the world to include active living communities, disaster preparedness and response, ecosystem and species conservation, environmental issues, development of volunteer or indigenous workforces, financial literacy, global threats of antibiotic resistance, government corruption, improving the quality of health care, injury prevention, landowner education, marine conservation and ocean sustainability, patient-centered health care, reducing health disparities, sustainable consumption, transportation demand management, water treatment and sanitation systems and youth gambling problems, among other social needs (See[14][15]).

On a wider front, by 2007, government in the United Kingdom announced the development of its first Social marketing strategy for all aspects of health.[16] In 2010, the US national health objectives[17] included increasing the number of state health departments that report using Social marketing in health promotion and disease prevention programs and increasing the number of schools of public health that offer courses and workforce development activities in Social marketing.

Two other public health applications include the CDC's CDCynergy training and software application[18] and SMART (Social marketing and Assessment Response Tool) in the U.S.[19] Social marketing theory and practice has been progressed in several countries such as the US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the UK, and in the latter a number of key government policy papers have adopted a strategic Social marketing approach.

Publications such as "Choosing Health" in 2004,[16] "It's our health!" in 2006 and "Health Challenge England" in 2006, represent steps to achieve a strategic and operational use of Social marketing.

In India, AIDS controlling programs are largely using Social marketing and social workers are largely working for it.

Most of the social workers are professionally trained for this task.[citation needed] A variation of Social marketing has emerged as a systematic way to foster more sustainable behavior.

Referred to as community-based Social marketing (CBSM) by Canadian environmental psychologist Doug McKenzie-Mohr, CBSM strives to change the behavior of communities to reduce their impact on the environment.[20] Realizing that simply providing information is usually not sufficient to initiate behavior change, CBSM uses tools and findings from social psychology to discover the perceived barriers to behavior change and ways of overcoming these barriers.

Among the tools and techniques used by CBSM are focus groups and surveys (to discover barriers) and commitments, prompts, social norms, social diffusion, feedback and incentives (to change behavior).

The tools of CBSM have been used to foster sustainable behavior in many areas, including energy conservation,[21] environmental regulation[22], recycling[23] and litter cleanup[24] In recent years, the concept of strategic Social marketing has emerged, which identifies that social change requires action at the individual, community, socio-cultural, political and environmental level, and that Social marketing can and should influence policy, strategy and operational tactics to achieve pro-social outcomes.[5] Other Social marketing can be aimed at products deemed, at least by proponents, as socially unacceptable.

One of the most notable is People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) which for many years has waged Social marketing campaigns against the use of natural fur products.

The campaigns' efficacy has been subject to dispute.[25] Not all Social marketing campaigns are effective everywhere.

For example, anti-smoking campaigns such as World No Tobacco Day while being successful (in concert with government tobacco controls) in curbing the demand for tobacco products in North America and in parts of Europe, have been less effective in other parts of the world such as China, India and Russia.[26] (See also: Prevalence of tobacco consumption) Social marketing uses the benefits of doing social good to secure and maintain customer engagement.

In Social marketing the distinguishing feature is therefore its "primary focus on social good, and it is not a secondary outcome.{{[27]}} Not all public sector and not-for-profit marketing is Social marketing.

Public sector bodies can use standard marketing approaches to improve the promotion of their relevant services and organizational aims.

This can be very important but should not be confused with Social marketing where the focus is on achieving specific behavioral goals with specific audiences in relation to topics relevant to social good (e.g., health, sustainability, recycling, etc.).

For example, a 3-month marketing campaign to encourage people to get an H1N1 vaccine is more tactical in nature and should not be considered Social marketing.

A campaign that promotes and reminds people to get regular check-ups and all of their vaccinations when they're supposed to encourage a long-term behavior change that benefits society.

It can, therefore, be considered Social marketing.

Social marketing can be confused with commercial marketing.

A commercial marketer may only seek to influence a buyer to purchase a product.

Social marketers have more difficult goals.

They want to make potentially difficult and long-term behavior changes in target populations, which may or may not involve purchasing a product.

For example, reducing cigarette smoking or encouraging the use of condoms have difficult challenges to overcome that go beyond purchasing decisions.

Social marketing is sometimes seen as being restricted to a client base of non-profit organizations, health services groups, the government agency.

However, the goal of inducing social change is not restricted to this narrow spectrum of organizations.

Corporations, for example, can be clients.

Public relations or social responsibility departments may champion social causes such as funding for the arts, which would involve Social marketing.

Social marketing should not be confused with the societal marketing concept which was a forerunner of sustainable marketing in integrating issues of social responsibility into commercial marketing strategies.

In contrast to that, Social marketing uses commercial marketing theories, tools, and techniques to social issues.

Social marketing applies a "customer-oriented" approach and uses the concepts and tools used by commercial marketers in pursuit of social goals like anti-smoking campaigns or fundraising for NGOs.

Social marketers must create a competitive advantage by constantly adapting to and instigating change.

With climate change in mind, adaptations to market changes are likely to be more successful if actions are guided by knowledge of the forces shaping market behaviors and insights that enable the development of sustainable competitive advantages.[28] In 2006, Jupitermedia announced its "Social marketing" service,[29] with which it aims to enable website owners to profit from social media.

Despite protests from the Social marketing communities over the perceived hijacking of the term, Jupiter stuck with the name.[30] However, Jupiter's approach is more correctly (and commonly) referred to as social media optimization.

Many scholars ascribe the beginning of the field of Social marketing to an article published by G.D.

Wiebe in the Winter 1951-1952 edition of Public Opinion Quarterly.[31] In it, Wiebe posed a rhetorical question: "Why can’t you sell brotherhood and rational thinking like you can sell soap?” He then went on to discuss what he saw as the challenges of attempting to sell a social good as if it were a commodity, thus identifying Social marketing (though he did not label it as such) as a discipline unique from c mmodity marketing.

Yet, Wilkie & Moore (2003)[32] note that the marketing discipline has been involved with questions about the intersection of marketing and society since its earliest days as a discipline.

A decade later, organizations such as the KfW Entwicklungsbank in Germany, the Canadian International Development Agency, the Ministry for Foreign Affairs in The Netherlands, UK Department for International Development, US Agency for International Development, World Health Organization and the World Bank began sponsoring Social marketing interventions to improve family planning and achieve other social goals in Africa, Sri Lanka, and elsewhere.[33][34] The next milestone in the evolution of Social marketing was the publication of "Social marketing: An Approach to Planned Social Change" in the Journal of Marketing by Philip Kotler and Gerald Zaltman.[35] Kotler and Zaltman coined the term 'Social marketing' and defined it as "the design, implementation, and control of programs calculated to influence the acceptability of social ideas and involving considerations of product planning, pricing, communication, distribution, and marketing research." They conclude that "Social marketing appears to represent a bridging mechanism which links the behavior scientist's knowledge of human behavior with the socially useful implementation of what that knowledge allows." Craig Lefebvre and June Flora introduced Social marketing to the public health community in 1988,[12] where it has been most widely used and explored.

They noted that there was a need for "large scale, broad-based, behavior change focused programs" to improve public health (the community wide prevention of cardiovascular diseases in their respective projects) and outlined eight essential components of Social marketing that still hold today: Speaking of what they termed "social change campaigns", Kotler and Ned Roberto introduced the subject by writing, "A social change campaign is an organized effort conducted by one group (the change agent) which attempts to persuade others (the target adopters) to accept, modify, or abandon certain ideas, attitudes, practices or behavior." Their 1989 text was updated in 2002 by Philip Kotler, Ned Roberto and Nancy Lee.[37] In 2005, University of Stirling was the first university to open a dedicated research institute to Social marketing,[38] while in 2007, Middlesex University became the first university to offer a specialized postgraduate programme in Health & Social marketing.[39] In recent years there has been an important development to distinguish between "strategic Social marketing" and "operational Social marketing".

Much of the literature and case examples focus on operational Social marketing, using it to achieve specific behavioral goals in relation to different audiences and topics.

However, there has been increasing efforts to ensure Social marketing goes "upstream" and is used much more strategically to inform policy formulation and strategy development.

Here the focus is less on specific audience and topic work but uses strong customer understanding and insight to inform and guide effective policy and strategy development.

Social marketing in most cases stands in contrast to business marketing and serves for society wellbeing.

The techniques of this marketing are used for change of attitudes and behaviours of different audiences in public life.[40] Social marketing is also being explored as a method for social innovation, a framework to increase the adoption of evidence-based practices among professionals and organizations, and as a core skill for public sector managers and social entrepreneurs.

It is being viewed as an approach to design more effective, efficient, equitable and sustainable approaches to enhance social well-being that extends beyond individual behavior change to include creating positive shifts in social networks and social norms, businesses, markets and public policy.[41] Many examples exist of Social marketing research, with over 120 papers compiled in a six volume set.[15]).

For example, research now shows ways to reduce the intentions of people to binge drink or engage in dangerous driving.

Martin, Lee, Weeks and Kaya (2013) suggests that understanding consumer personality and how people view others is important.

People were shown ads talking of the harmful effects of binge drinking.

People who valued close friends as a sense of who they are were less likely to want to binge drink after seeing an ad featuring them and a close friend.

People who were loners or who did not see close friends important to their sense of who they were reacted better to ads featuring an individual.

A similar pattern was shown for ads showing a person driving at dangerous speeds.

This suggests ads showing potential harm to citizens from binge drinking or dangerous driving are less effective than ads highlighting a person's close friends.[42]

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