I am able to describe the fundamental concepts of information-seeking behaviors
Introduction
According to Marchionini (1995), “Information seeking [is] . . . a process in which humans purposefully engage to change their state of knowledge” (p.5). Common sense would suggest that this process is simple and straightforward: a person feels the need for information and then looks for the information (probably using Google). Common sense, however, is misleading. Information seeking is in fact quite complicated. It has multiple dimensions (behavioral, cognitive, and affective) and encompasses a variety of behaviors, stages, strategies, and types. Moreover, it is influenced by personal, environmental, social, ethnic, and cultural variables. Extensive research in the field of librarianship and information science is concerned with understanding the nuances and complexity of the information seeking process. Researchers such as Carol Kuhtlthau describe the stages of the information seeking process and their emotional correlates. Brenda Dervin has explored the fundamental motivation of information seeking behaviors: the existential predicament of individuals faced with a “gap” in their understanding of the world. David Ellis has identified distinct behaviors that together comprise the information seeking process. Robert Taylor has identified patterns of information seeking associated with particular groups and occupations.
Understanding information seeking is important because it helps support the fundamental commitment of librarians: helping users find the information they need. A strong understanding of the ways people actually go about seeking information helps librarians be more responsive to user needs. Services and systems can be designed in ways that reflect real information seeking behavior. When librarians understand what users in fact do when they seek information, they are in a better position to provide effective information services. My coursework in the SLIS program has included research and writing in the area of information seeking. I have studied work by some of the major researchers on information seeking and gained a strong understanding of the stages, behaviors, variables, etc. associated with the information seeking process. Based on my work in the SLIS program, I am able to describe the fundamental concepts of information-seeking behaviors.
Commentary
Even though theories, descriptions, and models of information seeking may vary considerably from researcher to researcher, researchers often express similar views on certain key features of the information seeking process. For example, researchers tend to use similar terminology when describing what motivates the information seeker. The user is motivated to seek information in order to resolve a state of incompleteness (Taylor, 1968), make sense of environmental anomalies (Belkin & Vickery, 1985), or diminish cognitive dissonance (Savolainen, 2004). Along similar lines, Dervin describes information seeking as a process of constructing meaning in response to “gaps” in personal understanding. The individual experiences a discontinuity between her “inner reality and the external reality with which they find themselves confronted” (Godbold, 2006, Introduction, ¶1). Information seeking is a process of “sense making” – the attempt to bridge that gap in understanding and construct meaning in the face of confusion or unintelligibility.
Once an information need arises, how does the information seeking process proceed? Again, researchers give varying answers to this question, but all seem to agree that information seeking subsumes a variety of discreet behaviors (e.g., browsing, differentiating, extracting, etc.) that may unfold in stages and/or in cyclical feedback loops. For example, Kuhlthau (2004) proposes a six-stage model of the information seeking process: (task) initiation, (topic) selection, exploration, (focus) formulation, collection (of information), and closure (of research). The initial stages (initiation through exploration) are generally characterized by a search for background information. During the second phase of the search (formulation through closure) the user seeks “information related to the general topic . . . , . . . with some [users] seeking information on a focused perspective of the topic at closure” (Kuhlthau, 1991, p. 365).
One of the unique features of Kuhlthau’s research is her attention to the affective dimensions of information seeking. The search begins in a state of uncertainty. For example, at the beginning stages of working on a research paper, many students do not have a research focus. Consequently, they have only a vague understanding of their information needs. This uncertainty at the beginning of the search process is associated with anxiety (Kuhlthau, 1991, p. 361). As the information search progresses, however, the user’s emotional state changes. As Kuhlthau (1991) reports from one of her studies, “Confidence increased significantly from initiation to closure. . . . The adjectives most used to describe feelings were confused, frustrated, and doubtful at initiation and satisfied, sure, and relieved at closure” (p. 366). The “turning point” for this shift occurs at stage four: focus formulation (Kuhlthau, 1991, p. 367). Emotional distress dissipates once the user gains a clearer and more focused understanding of her research topic (Kuhlthau, 1991, p. 365). Kuhlthau’s research highlights the point that information seeking is not limited to cognition and behavior, but includes a person’s emotions as well.
As Kuhlthau’s research shows, information seeking behavior often proceeds through a series of stages. Information seeking, however, is often not a linear process. Godbold (2006) explains that “The order of information seeking tasks may be reversed or convoluted, and includes dead-ends, changes of direction, iteration, abandonment and beginning again” (Shortfalls of the models, ¶1). A search may stall at any point along the way while new information may require a return to an earlier stage of the process. In addition, the search process is influenced by a wide variety of personal and environmental variables that may encourage or inhibit a search. One of Thomas Wilson’s early models of the information seeking process suggests that before an information need can even be expressed as information seeking behavior, certain barriers have to be overcome. These barriers may be personal in nature, role related, or environmental (Godbold, 2006, Four models by Wilson, ¶1). Personal variables that affect information seeking include attitude, knowledge, and levels of motivation (Kuhlthau, 1991; Savolainen, 2004). The information seeker may be faced with time constraints or have limited access to information resources (Kuhlthau, 1991). Liu (1995) describes how ethnicity may also influence the information seeking process. For example, an information search may be inhibited because of language issues or cultural expectations and values. Elfreda Chatman’s research has shown that socio-economic class may influence the information seeking process as well (Godbold, 2006; Savolainen, 2004).
What are the practical implications of this research? Research on information seeking behavior reinforces the need for a user-centered approach to library services. If Dervin is right and information is not an objective commodity, information can only be understood in relation to the unique, subjective experience of individuals. In order to help users meet their information needs, focus must be on the user’s own experience, problem, and context. In the reference interview, for example, this approach
involves using questions which are open-ended but also structured around the three parts of the sense-making model: questions about the situation (can you tell me a little about how this problem arose?); about the gap (what are you trying to understand about "x"?); about the uses (if you could have exactly the help you wanted, what would it be?). (Morris, 1994, p. 25)
An appreciation for the complexity of the search process also helps librarians provide better services to users. A librarian who recognizes the variables that may influence an information search – emotional states, ethnicity, class, motivation, etc. – is better able to identify the obstacles to a user’s search and consequently, better able to help the user overcome those obstacles. Based on Kuhlthau’s research, the librarian will recognize that the search process proceeds through different stages and that the user’s needs will vary depending on the stage of the search. Identifying a user’s information need may first involve identifying the stage of the user’s search. As Morris (1994) explains, “By analyzing the questions received from users, the information professional . . . can ‘diagnose’ what specific intervention activity is most appropriate” for the user (p. 25).
A fine-grained analysis of information seeking behavior has additional applications. For example, Taylor has shown that patterns of information seeking behavior may be correlated with specific groups and professions (Morris, 1994, p. 23). The librarian who recognizes these patterns may be more sensitive to the information needs of specific groups. Kuhlthau’s close scrutiny of the information seeking process has identified certain ideas or beliefs that may undermine the information search. For example, users may believe that inconsistent information reflects a flaw in the search process, or fail to understand that identifying a research focus is a process that may take some time (Kuhlthau, 1991). By being aware of such beliefs, the librarian has an opportunity to correct ideas that impede the information seeking process.
Evidence
I am submitting three assignments as evidence of my competency in this area. The first assignment is the final paper I wrote for LIBR 200. The paper deals with the early stages of the information seeking process: the vague information need that often initiates a search and the process of clarifying that need as a search progresses. In the paper I summarize views by Taylor, Belkin, and Kuhlthau on vague information needs and the clarification of those needs. I question the claim that the user moves from a vague need to a precise need, arguing that in fact a vague need is an indication of specific, proximate needs which must be identified to advance the search process. In other words, the paper critiques the claim that users in fact have vague information needs. Rather, a “vague information need” points to a precise information need(s), usually concerning background information or domain knowledge related to the user’s topic.
The other two assignments I am submitting are both discussion postings. The first is a discussion posting on “satisficing” as a dimension of information seeking behavior. Satisficing refers to the tendency for users to accept information that is “good enough” rather than seek the best, most complete information. Librarians tend to see this as a problem because it means that users will cut short their research process and neglect much of the quality information available in and through the library. More seriously, satisficing may entail that library resources are not used at all, the user being satisfied with whatever she finds using Google. In the discussion posting I question the view that satisficing is problematic for librarians. Librarians are strong advocates of a user-centered approach to services. From this perspective, the user’s own sense of satisfaction obligates the librarian to value and respect the user’s information seeking behavior. At the same time, I note a distinction between “good enough” as a necessary time-management strategy vs. “good enough” as an expression of a lack of intellectual curiosity. The second possibility has more problematic implications for the relevance of libraries to information seekers.
The second discussion post concerns the relationship between the relatedness and utility of search results and the implications of this relationship on the value of browsing as an information seeking strategy. In general, search results that are related to a search statements will be valuable (have high utility) for the user. However, relatedness and utility are not necessarily directly correlated; information with low relatedness may sometimes have high utility. This is because information with high relatedness tends to fall within the scope of the familiar or known. The most valuable information, however, may fall outside the user’s expectations or current state of knowledge. In this situation, information with high relatedness may have relatively low utility. These observations highlight the value of browsing as an information seeking strategy, since browsing affords a way to discover unexpected information that may have high utility for the user.
Conclusion
The purpose of library services and systems is to help users find information. However, the efficacy of those services may be limited if they are designed without an appreciation for the ways users actually seek information. Understanding information seeking behaviors helps librarians be more responsive to user needs. Given the mission of libraries, it would be hard to underestimate the importance of this competency. Through my SLIS coursework, I understand the fundamental concepts of information seeking behaviors, giving me the background I will need to best serve the information needs of library users.
References
Belkin, N. J. & Vickery, A. (1985). Interaction in information systems: A review of research from document retrieval to knowledge-based systems. London: British Library Board.
Godbold, N. (2006). Beyond information seeking: Towards a general model of information behaviour. iRinformationresearch, 11(4). Retrieved October 24, 2009 from http://informationr.net/ir/11-4/paper269.html
Kuhlthau, C. C. (1991). Inside the search process: Information seeking from the user’s perspective. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 42(5), 361-371. Retrieved March 30, 2006, from ProQuest.
Kuhlthau, C. C. (2004). Seeking meaning: A process approach to library and information services. Westport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited.
Liu, M. (1995). Ethnicity and information seeking. The Reference Librarian, 23(49), 123 – 134. Retrieved October 25, 2009, from informaworld.
Marchionini, G. (1995). Information seeking in electronic environments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Morris, R. C. T. (1994). Toward a user-centered information service. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 45(1), 20-30. Retrieved October 26, 2009, from Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts Full Text.
Savolainen, R. (2004). Everyday life information seeking. In Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, (Vol. 1, pp. 1 – 9). Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis. Retrieved October 22, 2009, from informaworld.
Taylor, R. S. (1968). Question-negotiation and information-seeking in libraries. College and Research Libraries, 29, 178-194.