SRK Institute of Technology, Enikepadu, Vijayawada.
Prepared by B. Pratap (Dept of MCA)
PL/SQL stands for Procedural Language extension of SQL.
PL/SQL is a combination of SQL along with the procedural features of programming languages. It was developed by Oracle Corporation in the early 90’s to enhance the capabilities of SQL.
Oracle uses a PL/SQL engine to processes the PL/SQL statements. A PL/SQL code can be stored in the client system (client-side) or in the database (server-side).
Each PL/SQL program consists of SQL and PL/SQL statements which from a PL/SQL block.
A PL/SQL Block consists of three sections:
The Declaration section (optional).
The Execution section (mandatory).
The Exception (or Error) Handling section (optional).
The Declaration section of a PL/SQL Block starts with the reserved keyword DECLARE. This section is optional and is used to declare any placeholders like variables, constants, records and cursors, which are used to manipulate data in the execution section. Placeholders may be any of Variables, Constants and Records, which stores data temporarily. Cursors are also declared in this section.
The Execution section of a PL/SQL Block starts with the reserved keyword BEGIN and ends with END. This is a mandatory section and is the section where the program logic is written to perform any task. The programmatic constructs like loops, conditional statement and SQL statements form the part of execution section.
The Exception section of a PL/SQL Block starts with the reserved keyword EXCEPTION. This section is optional. Any errors in the program can be handled in this section, so that the PL/SQL Blocks terminates gracefully. If the PL/SQL Block contains exceptions that cannot be handled, the Block terminates abruptly with errors.
Every statement in the above three sections must end with a semicolon ; . PL/SQL blocks can be nested within other PL/SQL blocks. Comments can be used to document code.
These are the advantages of PL/SQL.
Block Structures: PL SQL consists of blocks of code, which can be nested within each other. Each block forms a unit of a task or a logical module. PL/SQL Blocks can be stored in the database and reused.
Procedural Language Capability: PL SQL consists of procedural language constructs such as conditional statements (if else statements) and loops like (FOR loops).
Better Performance: PL SQL engine processes multiple SQL statements simultaneously as a single block, thereby reducing network traffic.
Error Handling: PL/SQL handles errors or exceptions effectively during the execution of a PL/SQL program. Once an exception is caught, specific actions can be taken depending upon the type of the exception or it can be displayed to the user with a message.
Placeholders are temporary storage area. Placeholders can be any of Variables, Constants and Records. Oracle defines placeholders to store data temporarily, which are used to manipulate data during the execution of a PL SQL block.
Depending on the kind of data you want to store, you can define placeholders with a name and a datatype. Few of the datatypes used to define placeholders are as given below.
Number (n,m) , Char (n) , Varchar2 (n) , Date , Long , Long raw, Raw, Blob, Clob, Nclob, Bfile
These are placeholders that store the values that can change through the PL/SQL Block.
The General Syntax to declare a variable is:
variable_name datatype [NOT NULL := value ];
variable_name is the name of the variable.
datatype is a valid PL/SQL datatype.
NOT NULL is an optional specification on the variable.
value or DEFAULT valueis also an optional specification, where you can initialize a variable.
Each variable declaration is a separate statement and must be terminated by a semicolon.
For example, if you want to store the current salary of an employee, you can use a variable.
DECLARE
salary number (6);
* “salary” is a variable of datatype number and of length 6.
When a variable is specified as NOT NULL, you must initialize the variable when it is declared.
For example: The below example declares two variables, one of which is a not null.
DECLARE
salary number(4);
dept varchar2(10) NOT NULL := “HR Dept”;
The value of a variable can change in the execution or exception section of the PL/SQL Block. We can assign values to variables in the two ways given below.
1) We can directly assign values to variables.
The General Syntax is:
variable_name:= value;
2) We can assign values to variables directly from the database columns by using a SELECT.. INTO statement. The General Syntax is:
SELECT column_name INTO variable_name FROM table_name [WHERE condition];
Example: The below program will get the salary of an employee with id '1116' and display it on the screen.
DECLARE
var_salary number(6);
var_emp_id number(6) = 1116;
BEGIN
SELECT salary
INTO var_salary
FROM employee
WHERE emp_id = var_emp_id;
dbms_output.put_line(var_salary);
dbms_output.put_line('The employee '
|| var_emp_id || ' has salary ' || var_salary);
END;
/
NOTE: The backward slash '/' in the above program indicates to execute the above PL/SQL Block.
PL/SQL allows the nesting of Blocks within Blocks i.e, the Execution section of an outer block can contain inner blocks. Therefore, a variable which is accessible to an outer Block is also accessible to all nested inner Blocks. The variables declared in the inner blocks are not accessible to outer blocks. Based on their declaration we can classify variables into two types.
Local variables - These are declared in a inner block and cannot be referenced by outside Blocks.
Global variables - These are declared in a outer block and can be referenced by its itself and by its inner blocks.
For Example: In the below example we are creating two variables in the outer block and assigning thier product to the third variable created in the inner block. The variable 'var_mult' is declared in the inner block, so cannot be accessed in the outer block i.e. it cannot be accessed after line 11. The variables 'var_num1' and 'var_num2' can be accessed anywhere in the block.
1> DECLARE
2> var_num1 number;
3> var_num2 number;
4> BEGIN
5> var_num1 := 100;
6> var_num2 := 200;
7> DECLARE
8> var_mult number;
9> BEGIN
10> var_mult := var_num1 * var_num2;
11> END;
12> END;
13> /
As the name implies a constant is a value used in a PL/SQL Block that remains unchanged throughout the program. A constant is a user-defined literal value. You can declare a constant and use it instead of actual value.
For example: If you want to write a program which will increase the salary of the employees by 25%, you can declare a constant and use it throughout the program. Next time when you want to increase the salary again you can change the value of the constant which will be easier than changing the actual value throughout the program.
The General Syntax to declare a constant is:
constant_name CONSTANT datatype := VALUE;
constant_name is the name of the constant i.e. similar to a variable name.
The word CONSTANT is a reserved word and ensures that the value does not change.
VALUE - It is a value which must be assigned to a constant when it is declared. You cannot assign a value later.
For example, to declare salary_increase, you can write code as follows:
DECLARE
salary_increase CONSTANT number (3) := 10;
You must assign a value to a constant at the time you declare it. If you do not assign a value to a constant while declaring it and try to assign a value in the execution section, you will get a error. If you execute the below Pl/SQL block you will get error.
DECLARE
salary_increase CONSTANT number(3);
BEGIN
salary_increase := 100;
dbms_output.put_line (salary_increase);
END;
Records are another type of datatypes which oracle allows to be defined as a placeholder. Records are composite datatypes, which means it is a combination of different scalar datatypes like char, varchar, number etc. Each scalar data types in the record holds a value. A record can be visualized as a row of data. It can contain all the contents of a row.
To declare a record, you must first define a composite datatype; then declare a record for that type.
The General Syntax to define a composite datatype is:
TYPE record_type_name IS RECORD(first_col_name column_datatype, second_col_name column_datatype, ...);
record_type_name – it is the name of the composite type you want to define.
first_col_name, second_col_name, etc.,- it is the names the fields/columns within the record.
column_datatype defines the scalar datatype of the fields.
There are different ways you can declare the datatype of the fields.
1) You can declare the field in the same way as you declare the fieds while creating the table.
2) If a field is based on a column from database table, you can define the field_type as follows:
col_name table_name.column_name%type;
By declaring the field datatype in the above method, the datatype of the column is dynamically applied to the field. This method is useful when you are altering the column specification of the table, because you do not need to change the code again.
NOTE: You can use also %type to declare variables and constants.
The General Syntax to declare a record of a uer-defined datatype is:
record_name record_type_name;
The following code shows how to declare a record called employee_rec based on a user-defined type.
DECLARE
TYPE employee_type IS RECORD
(employee_id number(5),
employee_first_name varchar2(25),
employee_last_name employee.last_name%type,
employee_dept employee.dept%type);
employee_salary employee.salary%type;
employee_rec employee_type;
If all the fields of a record are based on the columns of a table, we can declare the record as follows:
record_name table_name%ROWTYPE;
For example, the above declaration of employee_rec can as follows:
DECLARE
employee_rec employee%ROWTYPE;
The advantages of declaring the record as a ROWTYPE are:
1) You do not need to explicitly declare variables for all the columns in a table.
2) If you alter the column specification in the database table, you do not need to update the code.
The disadvantage of declaring the record as a ROWTYPE is:
1) When u create a record as a ROWTYPE, fields will be created for all the columns in the table and memory will be used to create the datatype for all the fields. So use ROWTYPE only when you are using all the columns of the table in the program.
NOTE: When you are creating a record, you are just creating a datatype, similar to creating a variable. You need to assign values to the record to use them.
The following table consolidates the different ways in which you can define and declare a pl/sql record.
When you assign values to a record, you actually assign values to the fields within it.
The General Syntax to assign a value to a column within a record direclty is:
record_name.col_name := value;
If you used %ROWTYPE to declare a record, you can assign values as shown:
record_name.column_name := value;
We can assign values to records using SELECT Statements as shown:
SELECT col1, col2
INTO record_name.col_name1, record_name.col_name2
FROM table_name
[WHERE clause];
If %ROWTYPE is used to declare a record then you can directly assign values to the whole record instead of each columns separately. In this case, you must SELECT all the columns from the table into the record as shown:
SELECT * INTO record_name FROM table_name [WHERE clause];
Lets see how we can get values from a record.
The General Syntax to retrieve a value from a specific field into another variable is:
var_name := record_name.col_name;
The following table consolidates the different ways you can assign values to and from a record:
As the name implies, PL/SQL supports programming language features like conditional statements, iterative statements.
The programming constructs are similar to how you use in programming languages like Java and C++. In this section I will provide you syntax of how to use conditional statements in PL/SQL programming.
IF THEN ELSE STATEMENT
1)
IF condition
THEN
statement 1;
ELSE
statement 2;
END IF;
2)
IF condition 1
THEN
statement 1;
statement 2;
ELSIF condtion2 THEN
statement 3;
ELSE
statement 4;
END IF
3)
IF condition 1
THEN
statement 1;
statement 2;
ELSIF condtion2 THEN
statement 3;
ELSE
statement 4;
END IF;
4)
IF condition1 THEN
ELSE
IF condition2 THEN
statement1;
END IF;
ELSIF condition3 THEN
statement2;
END IF;
An iterative control Statements are used when we want to repeat the execution of one or more statements for specified number of times. These are similar to those in
There are three types of loops in PL/SQL:
• Simple Loop
• While Loop
• For Loop
A Simple Loop is used when a set of statements is to be executed at least once before the loop terminates. An EXIT condition must be specified in the loop, otherwise the loop will get into an infinite number of iterations. When the EXIT condition is satisfied the process exits from the loop.
The General Syntax to write a Simple Loop is:
LOOP
statements;
EXIT;
{or EXIT WHEN condition;}
END LOOP;
These are the important steps to be followed while using Simple Loop.
1) Initialise a variable before the loop body.
2) Increment the variable in the loop.
3) Use a EXIT WHEN statement to exit from the Loop. If you use a EXIT statement without WHEN condition, the statements in the loop is executed only once.
A WHILE LOOP is used when a set of statements has to be executed as long as a condition is true. The condition is evaluated at the beginning of each iteration. The iteration continues until the condition becomes false.
The General Syntax to write a WHILE LOOP is:
WHILE <condition>
LOOP statements;
END LOOP;
Important steps to follow when executing a while loop:
1) Initialise a variable before the loop body.
2) Increment the variable in the loop.
3) EXIT WHEN statement and EXIT statements can be used in while loops but it's not done oftenly.
A FOR LOOP is used to execute a set of statements for a predetermined number of times. Iteration occurs between the start and end integer values given. The counter is always incremented by 1. The loop exits when the counter reachs the value of the end integer.
The General Syntax to write a FOR LOOP is:
FOR counter IN val1..val2
LOOP statements;
END LOOP;
val1 - Start integer value.
val2 - End integer value.
Important steps to follow when executing a while loop:
1) The counter variable is implicitly declared in the declaration section, so it's not necessary to declare it explicity.
2) The counter variable is incremented by 1 and does not need to be incremented explicitly.
3) EXIT WHEN statement and EXIT statements can be used in FOR loops but it's not done oftenly.
NOTE: The above Loops are explained with a example when dealing with Explicit Cursors.
A cursor is a temporary work area created in the system memory when a SQL statement is executed. A cursor contains information on a select statement and the rows of data accessed by it. This temporary work area is used to store the data retrieved from the database, and manipulate this data. A cursor can hold more than one row, but can process only one row at a time. The set of rows the cursor holds is called the active set.
There are two types of cursors in PL/SQL:
Implicit cursors:
These are created by default when DML statements like, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements are executed. They are also created when a SELECT statement that returns just one row is executed.
Explicit cursors:
They must be created when you are executing a SELECT statement that returns more than one row. Even though the cursor stores multiple records, only one record can be processed at a time, which is called as current row. When you fetch a row the current row position moves to next row.
Both implicit and explicit cursors have the same functionality, but they differ in the way they are accessed.
When you execute DML statements like DELETE, INSERT, UPDATE and SELECT statements, implicit statements are created to process these statements.
Oracle provides few attributes called as implicit cursor attributes to check the status of DML operations. The cursor attributes available are %FOUND, %NOTFOUND, %ROWCOUNT, and %ISOPEN.
For example, When you execute INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statements the cursor attributes tell us whether any rows are affected and how many have been affected.
When a SELECT... INTO statement is executed in a PL/SQL Block, implicit cursor attributes can be used to find out whether any row has been returned by the SELECT statement. PL/SQL returns an error when no data is selected.
The status of the cursor for each of these attributes are defined in the below table.
For Example: Consider the PL/SQL Block that uses implicit cursor attributes as shown below:
DECLARE var_rows number(5);
BEGIN
UPDATE employee
SET salary = salary + 1000;
IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN
dbms_output.put_line('None of the salaries where updated');
ELSIF SQL%FOUND THEN
var_rows := SQL%ROWCOUNT;
dbms_output.put_line('Salaries for ' || var_rows || 'employees are updated');
END IF;
END;
In the above PL/SQL Block, the salaries of all the employees in the ‘employee’ table are updated. If none of the employee’s salary are updated we get a message 'None of the salaries where updated'. Else we get a message like for example, 'Salaries for 1000 employees are updated' if there are 1000 rows in ‘employee’ table.
An explicit cursor is defined in the declaration section of the PL/SQL Block. It is created on a SELECT Statement which returns more than one row. We can provide a suitable name for the cursor.
The General Syntax for creating a cursor is as given below:
CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;
cursor_name – A suitable name for the cursor.
select_statement – A select query which returns multiple rows.
There are four steps in using an Explicit Cursor.
DECLARE the cursor in the declaration section.
OPEN the cursor in the Execution Section.
FETCH the data from cursor into PL/SQL variables or records in the Execution Section.
CLOSE the cursor in the Execution Section before you end the PL/SQL Block.
1) Declaring a Cursor in the Declaration Section:
DECLARE
CURSOR emp_cur IS
SELECT *
FROM emp_tbl
WHERE salary > 5000;
In the above example we are creating a cursor ‘emp_cur’ on a query which returns the records of all the
employees with salary greater than 5000. Here ‘emp_tbl’ in the table which contains records of all the
employees.
2) Accessing the records in the cursor:
Once the cursor is created in the declaration section we can access the cursor in the execution
section of the PL/SQL program.
These are the three steps in accessing the cursor.
1) Open the cursor.
2) Fetch the records in the cursor one at a time.
3) Close the cursor.
General Syntax to open a cursor is:
OPEN cursor_name;
General Syntax to fetch records from a cursor is:
FETCH cursor_name INTO record_name;
OR
FETCH cursor_name INTO variable_list;
General Syntax to close a cursor is:
CLOSE cursor_name;
When a cursor is opened, the first row becomes the current row. When the data is fetched it is copied to the record or variables and the logical pointer moves to the next row and it becomes the current row. On every fetch statement, the pointer moves to the next row. If you want to fetch after the last row, the program will throw an error. When there is more than one row in a cursor we can use loops along with explicit cursor attributes to fetch all the records.
Points to remember while fetching a row:
· We can fetch the rows in a cursor to a PL/SQL Record or a list of variables created in the PL/SQL Block.
· If you are fetching a cursor to a PL/SQL Record, the record should have the same structure as the cursor.
· If you are fetching a cursor to a list of variables, the variables should be listed in the same order in the fetch statement as the columns are present in the cursor.
General Form of using an explicit cursor is:
DECLARE
variables;
records;
create a cursor;
BEGIN
OPEN cursor;
FETCH cursor;
process the records;
CLOSE cursor;
END;
Example 1:
1> DECLARE
2> emp_rec emp_tbl%rowtype;
3> CURSOR emp_cur IS
4> SELECT *
5> FROM
6> WHERE salary > 10;
7> BEGIN
8> OPEN emp_cur;
9> FETCH emp_cur INTO emp_rec;
10> dbms_output.put_line (emp_rec.first_name || ' ' || emp_rec.last_name);
11> CLOSE emp_cur;
12> END;
In the above example, first we are creating a record ‘emp_rec’ of the same structure as of table ‘emp_tbl’ in line no 2. We can also create a record with a cursor by replacing the table name with the cursor name. Second, we are declaring a cursor ‘emp_cur’ from a select query in line no 3 - 6. Third, we are opening the cursor in the execution section in line no 8. Fourth, we are fetching the cursor to the record in line no 9. Fifth, we are displaying the first_name and last_name of the employee in the record emp_rec in line no 10. Sixth, we are closing the cursor in line no 11.
Oracle provides some attributes known as Explicit Cursor Attributes to control the data processing while using cursors. We use these attributes to avoid errors while accessing cursors through OPEN, FETCH and CLOSE Statements.
a) When we try to open a cursor which is not closed in the previous operation.
b) When we try to fetch a cursor after the last operation.
These are the attributes available to check the status of an explicit cursor.
Oracle provides three types of cursors namely SIMPLE LOOP, WHILE LOOP and FOR LOOP. These loops can be used to process multiple rows in the cursor. Here I will modify the same example for each loops to explain how to use loops with cursors.
Cursor with a Simple Loop:
1> DECLARE
2> CURSOR emp_cur IS
3> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM emp_tbl;
4> emp_rec emp_cur%rowtype;
5> BEGIN
6> IF NOT sales_cur%ISOPEN THEN
7> OPEN sales_cur;
8> END IF;
9> LOOP
10> FETCH emp_cur INTO emp_rec;
11> EXIT WHEN emp_cur%NOTFOUND;
12> dbms_output.put_line(emp_cur.first_name || ' ' ||emp_cur.last_name
13> || ' ' ||emp_cur.salary);
14> END LOOP;
A stored procedure or in simple a proc is a named PL/SQL block which performs one or more specific task. This is similar to a procedure in other programming languages. A procedure has a header and a body. The header consists of the name of the procedure and the parameters or variables passed to the procedure. The body consists or declaration section, execution section and exception section similar to a general PL/SQL Block. A procedure is similar to an anonymous PL/SQL Block but it is named for repeated usage.
We can pass parameters to procedures in three ways.
1) IN-parameters
2) OUT-parameters
3) IN OUT-parameters
A procedure may or may not return any value.
General Syntax to create a procedure is:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE proc_name [list of parameters]
IS
Declaration section
BEGIN
Execution section
EXCEPTION
Exception section
END;
IS - marks the beginning of the body of the procedure and is similar to DECLARE in anonymous PL/SQL Blocks. The code between IS and BEGIN forms the Declaration section.
The syntax within the brackets [ ] indicate they are optional. By using CREATE OR REPLACE together the procedure is created if no other procedure with the same name exists or the existing procedure is replaced with the current code.
The below example creates a procedure ‘employer_details’ which gives the details of the employee.
1> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE employer_details
2> IS
3> CURSOR emp_cur IS
4> SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM emp_tbl;
5> emp_rec emp_cur%rowtype;
6> BEGIN
7> FOR emp_rec in sales_cur
8> LOOP
9> dbms_output.put_line(emp_cur.first_name || ' ' ||emp_cur.last_name
10> || ' ' ||emp_cur.salary);
11> END LOOP;
12>END;
13> /
There are two ways to execute a procedure.
1) From the SQL prompt.
EXECUTE [or EXEC] procedure_name;
2) Within another procedure – simply use the procedure name.
procedure_name;
NOTE: In the examples given above, we are using backward slash ‘/’ at the end of the program. This indicates the oracle engine that the PL/SQL program has ended and it can begin processing the statements.
A function is a named PL/SQL Block which is similar to a procedure. The major difference between a procedure and a function is, a function must always return a value, but a procedure may or may not return a value.
The General Syntax to create a function is:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION function_name [parameters]
RETURN return_datatype;
IS
Declaration_section
BEGIN
Execution_section
Return return_variable;
EXCEPTION
exception section
Return return_variable;
END;
1) Return Type: The header section defines the return type of the function. The return datatype can be any of the oracle datatype like varchar, number etc.
2) The execution and exception section both should return a value which is of the datatype defined in the header section.
For example, let’s create a frunction called ''employer_details_func' similar to the one created in stored proc
1> CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION employer_details_func
2> RETURN VARCHAR(20);
3> IS
5> emp_name VARCHAR(20);
6> BEGIN
7> SELECT first_name INTO emp_name
8> FROM emp_tbl WHERE empID = '100';
9> RETURN emp_name;
10> END;
11> /
In the example we are retrieving the ‘first_name’ of employee with empID 100 to variable ‘emp_name’.
The return type of the function is VARCHAR which is declared in line no 2.
The function returns the 'emp_name' which is of type VARCHAR as the return value in line no 9.
A function can be executed in the following ways.
1) Since a function returns a value we can assign it to a variable.
employee_name := employer_details_func;
If ‘employee_name’ is of datatype varchar we can store the name of the employee by assigning the return type of the function to it.
2) As a part of a SELECT statement
SELECT employer_details_func FROM dual;
3) In a PL/SQL Statements like,
dbms_output.put_line(employer_details_func);
This line displays the value returned by the function.
In PL/SQL, we can pass parameters to procedures and functions in three ways.
1) IN type parameter: These types of parameters are used to send values to stored procedures.
2) OUT type parameter: These types of parameters are used to get values from stored procedures. This is similar to a return type in functions.
3) IN OUT parameter: These types of parameters are used to send values and get values from stored procedures.
NOTE: If a parameter is not explicitly defined a parameter type, then by default it is an IN type parameter.
1) IN parameter:
This is similar to passing parameters in programming languages. We can pass values to the stored procedure through these parameters or variables. This type of parameter is a read only parameter. We can assign the value of IN type parameter to a variable or use it in a query, but we cannot change its value inside the procedure.
The General syntax to pass a IN parameter is
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name (
param_name1 IN datatype, param_name12 IN datatype ... )
param_name1, param_name2... are unique parameter names.
datatype - defines the datatype of the variable.
IN - is optional, by default it is a IN type parameter.
2) OUT Parameter:
The OUT parameters are used to send the OUTPUT from a procedure or a function. This is a write-only parameter i.e, we cannot pass values to OUT paramters while executing the stored procedure, but we can assign values to OUT parameter inside the stored procedure and the calling program can recieve this output value.
The General syntax to create an OUT parameter is
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE proc2 (param_name OUT datatype)
The parameter should be explicity declared as OUT parameter.
3) IN OUT Parameter:
The IN OUT parameter allows us to pass values into a procedure and get output values from the procedure. This parameter is used if the value of the IN parameter can be changed in the calling program.
By using IN OUT parameter we can pass values into a parameter and return a value to the calling program using the same parameter. But this is possible only if the value passed to the procedure and output value have a same datatype. This parameter is used if the value of the parameter will be changed in the procedure.
The General syntax to create an IN OUT parameter is
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE proc3 (param_name IN OUT datatype)
The below examples show how to create stored procedures using the above three types of parameters.
Example1:
Using IN and OUT parameter:
Let’s create a procedure which gets the name of the employee when the employee id is passed.
1> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE emp_name (id IN NUMBER, emp_name OUT NUMBER)
2> IS
3> BEGIN
4> SELECT first_name INTO emp_name
5> FROM emp_tbl WHERE empID = id;
6> END;
7> /
We can call the procedure ‘emp_name’ in this way from a PL/SQL Block.
1> DECLARE
2> empName varchar(20);
3> CURSOR id_cur SELECT id FROM emp_ids;
4> BEGIN
5> FOR emp_rec in id_cur
6> LOOP
7> emp_name(emp_rec.id, empName);
8> dbms_output.putline('The employee ' || empName || ' has id ' || emp-rec.id);
9> END LOOP;
10> END;
11> /
In the above PL/SQL Block
In line no 3; we are creating a cursor ‘id_cur’ which contains the employee id.
In line no 7; we are calling the procedure ‘emp_name’, we are passing the ‘id’ as IN parameter and ‘empName’ as OUT parameter.
In line no 8; we are displaying the id and the employee name which we got from the procedure ‘emp_name’.
Example 2: Using IN OUT parameter in procedures:
1> CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE emp_salary_increase
2> (emp_id IN emptbl.empID%type, salary_inc IN OUT emptbl.salary%type)
3> IS
4> tmp_sal number;
5> BEGIN
6> SELECT salary
7> INTO tmp_sal
8> FROM emp_tbl
9> WHERE empID = emp_id;
10> IF tmp_sal between 10000 and 20000 THEN
11> salary_inout := tmp_sal * 1.2;
12> ELSIF tmp_sal between 20000 and 30000 THEN
13> salary_inout := tmp_sal * 1.3;
14> ELSIF tmp_sal > 30000 THEN
15> salary_inout := tmp_sal * 1.4;
16> END IF;
17> END;
18> /
The below PL/SQL block shows how to execute the above 'emp_salary_increase' procedure.
1> DECLARE
2> CURSOR updated_sal is
3> SELECT empID,salary
4> FROM emp_tbl;
5> pre_sal number;
6> BEGIN
7> FOR emp_rec IN updated_sal LOOP
8> pre_sal := emp_rec.salary;
9> emp_salary_increase(emp_rec.empID, emp_rec.salary);
10> dbms_output.put_line('The salary of ' || emp_rec.empID ||
11> ' increased from '|| pre_sal || ' to '||emp_rec.salary);
12> END LOOP;
13> END;
14> /
In this section we will discuss about the following,
1) What is Exception Handling.
2) Structure of Exception Handling.
3) Types of Exception Handling.
PL/SQL provides a feature to handle the Exceptions which occur in a PL/SQL Block known as exception Handling. Using Exception Handling we can test the code and avoid it from exiting abruptly. When an exception occurs a messages which explains its cause is recieved.
PL/SQL Exception message consists of three parts.
1) Type of Exception
2) An Error Code
3) A message
By Handling the exceptions we can ensure a PL/SQL block does not exit abruptly.
The General Syntax for coding the exception section
DECLARE
Declaration section
BEGIN
Exception section
EXCEPTION
WHEN ex_name1 THEN
-Error handling statements
WHEN ex_name2 THEN
-Error handling statements
WHEN Others THEN
-Error handling statements
END;
General PL/SQL statments can be used in the Exception Block.
When an exception is raised, Oracle searches for an appropriate exception handler in the exception section. For example in the above example, if the error raised is 'ex_name1 ', then the error is handled according to the statements under it. Since, it is not possible to determine all the possible runtime errors during testing fo the code, the 'WHEN Others' exception is used to manage the exceptions that are not explicitly handled. Only one exception can be raised in a Block and the control does not return to the Execution Section after the error is handled.
If there are nested PL/SQL blocks like this.
DELCARE
Declaration section
BEGIN
DECLARE
Declaration section
BEGIN
Execution section
EXCEPTION
Exception section
END;
EXCEPTION
Exception section
END;
In the above case, if the exception is raised in the inner block it should be handled in the exception block of the inner PL/SQL block else the control moves to the Exception block of the next upper PL/SQL Block. If none of the blocks handle the exception the program ends abruptly with an error.
There are 3 types of Exceptions.
a) Named System Exceptions
b) Unnamed System Exceptions
c) User-defined Exceptions
System exceptions are automatically raised by Oracle, when a program violates a RDBMS rule. There are some system exceptions which are raised frequently, so they are pre-defined and given a name in Oracle which are known as Named System Exceptions.
For example: NO_DATA_FOUND and ZERO_DIVIDE are called Named System exceptions.
Named system exceptions are:
1) Not Declared explicitly,
2) Raised implicitly when a predefined Oracle error occurs,
3) caught by referencing the standard name within an exception-handling routine.
For Example: Suppose a NO_DATA_FOUND exception is raised in a proc, we can write a code to handle the exception as given below.
BEGIN
Execution section
EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
dbms_output.put_line ('A SELECT...INTO did not return any row.');
END;
Those system exception for which oracle does not provide a name is known as unamed system exception. These exception do not occur frequently. These Exceptions have a code and an associated message.
There are two ways to handle unnamed sysyem exceptions:
1. By using the WHEN OTHERS exception handler, or
2. By associating the exception code to a name and using it as a named exception.
We can assign a name to unnamed system exceptions using a Pragma called EXCEPTION_INIT.
EXCEPTION_INIT will associate a predefined Oracle error number to a programmer_defined exception name.
Steps to be followed to use unnamed system exceptions are
• They are raised implicitly.
• If they are not handled in WHEN Others they must be handled explicity.
• To handle the exception explicity, they must be declared using Pragma EXCEPTION_INIT as given above and handled referecing the user-defined exception name in the exception section.
The general syntax to declare unnamed system exception using EXCEPTION_INIT is:
DECLARE
exception_name EXCEPTION;
PRAGMA
EXCEPTION_INIT (exception_name, Err_code);
BEGIN
Execution section
EXCEPTION
WHEN exception_name THEN
handle the exception
END;
For Example: Lets consider the product table and order_items table from sql joins.
Here product_id is a primary key in product table and a foreign key in order_items table.
If we try to delete a product_id from the product table when it has child records in order_id table an exception will be thrown with oracle code number -2292.
We can provide a name to this exception and handle it in the exception section as given below.
DECLARE
Child_rec_exception EXCEPTION;
PRAGMA
EXCEPTION_INIT (Child_rec_exception, -2292);
BEGIN
Delete FROM product where product_id= 104;
EXCEPTION
WHEN Child_rec_exception
THEN Dbms_output.put_line('Child records are present for this product_id.');
END;
/
Apart from sytem exceptions we can explicity define exceptions based on business rules. These are known as user-defined exceptions.
Steps to be followed to use user-defined exceptions:
• They should be explicitly declared in the declaration section.
• They should be explicitly raised in the Execution Section.
• They should be handled by referencing the user-defined exception name in the exception section.
For Example: Lets consider the product table and order_items table from sql joins to explain user-defined exception.
Lets create a business rule that if the total no of units of any particular product sold is more than 20, then it is a huge quantity and a special discount should be provided.
DECLARE
huge_quantity EXCEPTION;
CURSOR product_quantity is
SELECT p.product_name as name, sum(o.total_units) as units
FROM order_tems o, product p
WHERE o.product_id = p.product_id;
quantity order_tems.total_units%type;
up_limit CONSTANT order_tems.total_units%type := 20;
message VARCHAR2(50);
BEGIN
FOR product_rec in product_quantity LOOP
quantity := product_rec.units;
IF quantity > up_limit THEN
message := 'The number of units of product ' || product_rec.name ||
' is more than 20. Special discounts should be provided.
Rest of the records are skipped. '
RAISE huge_quantity;
ELSIF quantity < up_limit THEN
v_message:= 'The number of unit is below the discount limit.';
END IF;
dbms_output.put_line (message);
END LOOP;
EXCEPTION
WHEN huge_quantity THEN
dbms_output.put_line (message);
END;
/
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR is a built-in procedure in oracle which is used to display the user-defined error messages along with the error number whose range is in between -20000 and -20999.
Whenever a message is displayed using RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR, all previous transactions which are not committed within the PL/SQL Block are rolled back automatically (i.e. change due to INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statements).
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR raises an exception but does not handle it.
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR is used for the following reasons,
a) to create a unique id for an user-defined exception.
b) to make the user-defined exception look like an Oracle error.
The General Syntax to use this procedure is:
RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR (error_number, error_message);
• The Error number must be between -20000 and -20999
• The Error_message is the message you want to display when the error occurs.
Steps to be folowed to use RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR procedure:
1. Declare a user-defined exception in the declaration section.
2. Raise the user-defined exception based on a specific business rule in the execution section.
3. Finally, catch the exception and link the exception to a user-defined error number in RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR.
Using the above example we can display a error message using RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR.
DECLARE
huge_quantity EXCEPTION;
CURSOR product_quantity is
SELECT p.product_name as name, sum(o.total_units) as units
FROM order_tems o, product p
WHERE o.product_id = p.product_id;
quantity order_tems.total_units%type;
up_limit CONSTANT order_tems.total_units%type := 20;
message VARCHAR2(50);
BEGIN
FOR product_rec in product_quantity LOOP
quantity := product_rec.units;
IF quantity > up_limit THEN
RAISE huge_quantity;
ELSIF quantity < up_limit THEN
v_message:= 'The number of unit is below the discount limit.';
END IF;
Dbms_output.put_line (message);
END LOOP;
EXCEPTION
WHEN huge_quantity THEN
raise_application_error(-2100, 'The number of unit is above the discount limit.');
END;
/
A trigger is a pl/sql block structure which is fired when a DML statements like Insert, Delete, Update is executed on a database table. A trigger is triggered automatically when an associated DML statement is executed.
The Syntax for creating a trigger is:
CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name
{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }
{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}
[OF col_name]
ON table_name
[REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]
[FOR EACH ROW]
WHEN (condition)
BEGIN
--- sql statements
END;
CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name - This clause creates a trigger with the given name or overwrites an existing trigger with the same name.
{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF } - This clause indicates at what time should the trigger get fired. i.e for example: before or after updating a table. INSTEAD OF is used to create a trigger on a view. before and after cannot be used to create a trigger on a view.
{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE} - This clause determines the triggering event. More than one triggering events can be used together separated by OR keyword. The trigger gets fired at all the specified triggering event.
[OF col_name] - This clause is used with update triggers. This clause is used when you want to trigger an event only when a specific column is updated.
CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name - This clause creates a trigger with the given name or overwrites an existing trigger with the same name.
[ON table_name] - This clause identifies the name of the table or view to which the trigger is associated.
[FOR EACH ROW] - This clause is used to determine whether a trigger must fire when each row gets affected ( i.e. a Row Level Trigger) or just once when the entire sql statement is executed(i.e.statement level Trigger).
WHEN (condition) - This clause is valid only for row level triggers. The trigger is fired only for rows that satisfy the condition specified.