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Climate change and the collapse of the Akkadian empire: Evidence from the deep sea H. M. Cullen P. B. deMenocal S. Hemming G. Hemming Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, Palisades, New York 10964, USA F. H. Brown University of Utah, Park City, Utah 84112, USA T. Guilderson Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California 94551, USA F. Sirocko Institut für Geowissenschaften, Johannes Gutenberg Universität, 55099 Mainz, Germany Data Repository item 200041 contains additional material related to this article. 30° 45° 60°E 15° 30° 45°N Syria Iraq M5-422 KL-74 TellLeilan 5 Figure 1. Location of Gulf of Oman core M5-422 (24° 23.40′N, 59°2.50′E; 2732 m deep). Average summer (June–August) wind rose is shown in lower right. Tell Leilan archeological site and Arabian Sea core location KL-74 are also shown. Area of detail is shown in upper right with the Mesopotamian floodplain (star), Zagros Mountain (circle) and Indus River (diamond) geochemical end members. ABSTRACT The Akkadian empire ruled Mesopotamia from the headwaters of the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers to the Persian Gulf during the late third millennium B.C. Archeological evidence has shown that this highly developed civilization collapsed abruptly near 4170 ± 150 calendar yr B.P., perhaps related to a shift to more arid conditions. Detailed paleoclimate records to test this assertion from Mesopotamia are rare, but changes in regional aridity are preserved in adjacent ocean basins. We document Holocene changes in regional aridity using mineralogic and geochemical analyses of a marine sediment core from the Gulf of Oman, which is directly downwind of Mesopotamian dust source areas and archeological sites. Our results document a very abrupt increase in eolian dust and Mesopotamian aridity, accelerator mass spectrometer radiocarbon dated to 4025 ± 125 calendar yr B.P., which persisted for ~300 yr. Radiogenic (Nd and Sr) isotope analyses confirm that the observed increase in mineral dust was derived from Mesopotamian source areas. Geochemical correlation of volcanic ash shards between the archeological site and marine sediment record establishes a direct temporal link between Mesopotamian aridification and social collapse, implicating a sudden shift to more arid conditions as a key factor contributing to the collapse of the Akkadian empire. Keywords: Holocene climate, Middle East, civilization collapse. latitude westerly flow. The marked seasonality of Mesopotamian rainfall and wind makes this region a rich source of mineral dust to the atmosphere, with many regions reporting over 200 days per year of dust-impaired visibility (Pye, 1987). Analysis of satellite imagery and marine sediments (Al-Bakri et al., 1984; Al-Ghadban, 1990; Sirocko and Sarnthein, 1989) indicates that these mineral dusts are transported southwest by the shamal to the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman with an estimated mass flux of 100 × 106 tons per year (Pye, 1987). Mesopotamian dusts have characteristically high concentrations of detrital dolomite, calcite, and quartz (Al-Bakri et al., 1984; Sirocko and Sarnthein, 1989). During the more arid conditions that prevailed during the last glacial maximum and Younger Dryas, as much as 50% of the total measured calcite content in the Gulf of Oman sediments was composed of fine, silt-sized detrital carbonate eolian grains (Sirocko, 1989; Sirocko et al., 1993). Dolomite concentration variations in northwest Indian Ocean sediments have been used previously to reconstruct late Pleistocene variations in Mesopotamian aridity (Sirocko, 1989; Sirocko et al., 1993). METHODS AND AGE CONTROL Core M5-422 (Fig. 1; 24°23.40′N, 59°2.50′E; 2732 m deep) from the Gulf of Oman was continuously subsampled at 2 cm intervals to reconstruct a marine sediment record of Holocene variations in regional aridity. The position of this core within the Mesopotamian dust trajectory and its distal location away from shelf and slope redeposition sources make it ideal for determining past changes in Mesopotamian climate. An oxygen isotopic stratigraphy from analyses of Globigerinoides ruber (Fig. 2) indicates average Holocene sedimentation rates of 15 cm/k.y., as the deglacial transition occurs at a depth of 150 cm, and our temporal resolution averages about 100 yr (Fig. 2). Samples were analyzed for magnetic susceptibility, calcium carbonate content, quantitative X-ray diffraction mineralogy, oxygen isotopic analyses, and Sr and Nd isotopic composition of the extracted detrital fraction using a sequential extraction technique described in Sirocko et al. (1993). Age control was established using eight accelerator mass spectrometer (AMS) radiocarbon dates on monospecific (G. sacculifer) foraminifera. Conventional radiocarbon dates on mixed planktonic foraminifera (>150 µm fraction) of four samples were also obtained (Table 1).1 Conversion to calendar ages (Table 1, see footnote 1) was accomplished using the Calib 3.03c calibration program (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993) after applying a reservoir correction of –560 yr derived for pre-bomb northwest Indian Ocean surface waters. All ages are in calendar years before present (B.P.) unless otherwise indicated. Sedimentation rates average 23 cm/k.y. over the mid-late Holocene portion of the record (past ~5000–6000 yr). RESULTS High abundances of detrital (eolian) dolomite and calcite at the base of core M5-422 concur with the well-documented and widespread aridity that was prevalent in Mesopotamia during the last glacial maximum and Younger Dryas cold period; dust fluxes to Arabian Sea sediments were two to five times greater than present values during the last glacial maximum (Clemens and Prell, 1990; Sirocko, 1989; Sirocko et al., 1993). By 11 500 B.P. the region became abruptly more humid due to the well-documented intensification of the Indian monsoon. Increased humidity in the region is documented in core M5-422 by abrupt decreases in eolian dolomite and calcite concentrations commencing near 145 cm (ca. 12 000 B.P.; Fig. 2) and is also documented by parallel changes in eolian deposition and monsoon-related upwelling in the Arabian Sea (core 74 KL; Fig. 1) (Sirocko et al., 1996). A dramatic mid-Holocene increase in eolian dolomite and calcite deposition occurred between 70 and 56 cm in the core, corresponding to an ~400 yr period spanning 4025–3625 B.P. based on four calibrated AMS radiocarbon ages (Fig. 2; Table 1, see footnote 1). Dolomite concentration, which reflects eolian mineral supply from Mesopotamian sources, increased from 1.5% to peak values approaching 9% by weight at 68 cm, a level dated to 4025 ± 150 B.P. We calculate that the mass flux of eolian dolomite (a component of solely eolian origin) increased from background values of 0.39–0.43 g/cm2/k.y. to a weighted average value of 0.97 g/cm2/k.y. during this abrupt mid-Holocene aridification event. Calcium carbonate in this core, which reflects contributions from both eolian carbonate grains as well as biogenic microfossil tests, increased from 19% to nearly 39% by weight. Under petrographic microscope, these sediments had marked increases in subrounded, well-sorted (25–30 µm) lithic dolomite, limestone, and quartz grains relative to adjacent sediments. A smaller amplitude increase in eolian dolomite and calcite concentrations was also detected at a depth of 86–90 cm (Fig. 2) within core M5-422, corresponding to about 5200 B.P., although this level was not radiocarbon dated directly. PROVENANCE OF THE 4025 B.P. INCREASE IN EOLIAN DEPOSITION We employed radiogenic isotope analyses (Nd and Sr) to determine the provenance of the 4025 ± 150 B.P. increase in eolian deposition. The εNd and 87Sr/86Sr isotopic signatures of marine sediments have been used previously to identify the provenance of lithic particles in marine sediments globally (Goldstein and O’nions, 1981; Grousset et al., 1988), and in the northwest Indian Ocean in particular (Dia et al., 1992). There are three principal sources of terrigenous sediments to the northwest Indian Ocean (Fig. 1), each with its own characteristic εNd and 87Sr/86Sr isotopic composition (Sirocko and Ittekot, 1992): the Zagros Mountains (Iran), the Indus River (southwestern Asia), and the Mesopotamian flood plains (Fig. 3). Estimates of the εNd and 87Sr/86Sr compositional ranges for these three end members are summarized in Figure 3. We use εNd and 87Sr/86Sr analysis to reconstruct past variations in the relative contributions of Zagros and Mesopotamian detrital sources with respect to the terrigenous sediment fraction in the M5-422 core top. 380 GEOLOGY, April 2000 1GSA Data Repository item 200041, Tables 1–3, is available on request from Documents Secretary, GSA, P.O. Box 9140, Boulder, CO 80301-9140, editing@geosociety.org, or at www.geosociety.org/ pubs/drpint. 01 -1 -2 -3 δ18O (‰) (G. ruber) 10 20 30 40 CaCO3 (% wt.) 30 20 10 Susceptibility (10-6 SI units) 0 5 10 25 Calendar Age (k.y) 0 3 6 9 12 Dolomite (% wt.) 14C (∆R = 560 yr) Calendar age (k.y.) 3626 calendar yr B.P. 4194 calendar yr B.P. M5-422 - Gulf of Oman S.E. = 0.6% S.E. = 1.1% 0 50 100 150 200 Depth (cm) 15 20 Figure 2. Core M5-422 (24°23.40′N, 59°2.50′E; 2732 m deep) increase in eolian dolomite and CaCO3 between 4194 and 3626 calendar yr B.P. Conventional bulk (>150 µm fraction) radiocarbon analyses are shown with error bars, respective analytical precisions are shown. Analyses of the extracted terrigenous fraction of core-top samples (open circles) from core M5-422 demonstrate that the dominant source of terrigenous sediment to this site is derived from the Zagros drainage (Fig. 3; Table 2, see footnote 1). A modern sample of atmospheric mineral dust fallout collected in Baghdad, Iraq, (closed circles) in the summer of 1995 was analyzed and its isotopic composition is within the Mesopotamian end member. Measured samples taken from the collapse horizon at the Tell Leilan–Abu Hgeira archeological site in northeast Syria (closed triangle) are consistent with an increased Mesopotamian end-member composition as compared to the core top. The εNd and 87Sr/86Sr isotopic composition of the 149 cm level (shaded triangle) in M5-422, representing the Younger Dryas (Table 1, see footnote 1), is shifted ~25% toward the Mesopotamian dust end member as compared to the core top (Fig. 3; Table 2, see footnote 1). This result confirms previous studies documenting greatly increased Mesopotamian aridity and dust supply during the hyper arid last glacial maximum and Younger Dryas cold periods (Sirocko and Sarnthein, 1989; Sirocko et al., 1993). The εNd and 87Sr/86Sr values obtained for the 68 and 66 cm samples (two open triangles) imply a return to arid conditions during the mid-Holocene and confirm an increased supply of eolian detritus from Mesopotamian sources at 4025 ± 150 B.P. (Fig. 3; Table 2, see footnote 1). The 87Sr/86Sr values for this level (0.7124–0.7128) are clearly lower than the core-top sediment value (0.7145) and are shifted ~30% along a Nd-Sr mixing line toward the less radiogenic Mesopotamian dust end-member value (0.7082–0.7086). We interpret the radiogenic isotope and mineralogic results to reflect an abrupt and rather short-lived (~400 yr) aridification of Mesopotamian dust source areas (primarily the Tigris and Euphrates flood plains) commencing near 4025 ± 150 B.P. TEPHROSTRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATION TO TELL LEILAN (NORTHEAST SYRIA) There remains the significant task of documenting a direct temporal link between this aridification event near 4025 ± 150 B.P. and the purported aridification event ascribed to the collapse of the Akkadian empire dated as 4175 ± 150 B.P. (Weiss et al., 1993). The calibrated radiocarbon ages for the aridification and social collapse events are synchronous in their joint 1 σ dating errors (Fig. 4) but other factors such as changes in the marine reservoir age correction, for example, can shift apparent marine radiocarbon ages by several hundred years (Bard et al., 1994). Geochemical correlation of volcanic ash fallout layers presents an analytically robust way to document synchroneity. A thin (0.5 cm) volcanic ash horizon from an as-yet unknown source volcano was identified in the Tell Leilan and nearby Abu Hgeira site strata (level 43 90-2) that immediately postdated the Akkadian collapse horizon but predated the ~300 yr occupational hiatus (40–100 cm of eolian sediments barren of artifacts). Abundant rhyolitic ash shards were observed and the major element geochemistry of these shards was determined by electron microprobe analysis (Weiss et al., 1993) (Table 3, see footnote 1). We examined the 68 and 70 cm levels in core M5-422 for volcanic shards under the petrographic microscope and found very rare volcanic ash shards which were clear, evidently rhyolitic, largely arcuate in shape, and with evident bubble-wall junctions. No shards were found in the sediments directly above and below this level (Fig. 4). These samples were acidified to remove carbonate material, sieved at 38 µm, and the >38 µm fractions were then analyzed by electron microprobe analysis. Samples were analyzed on a Cameca SX-50 electron microprobe equipped with four wavelength-dispersive spectrometers. The accelerating voltage was 15 kV, the beam current 25 nA, and the beam diameter was between 5 and 25 µm. Elemental concentrations were calculated from relative peak intensities using the φ(ρz) algorithm (Pouchou and Pichoir, 1991). The resulting major element oxide compositions from a total of seven probe analyses on two shards are presented in Table 3 (see footnote 1). The oxide compositions of the Tell Leilan–Abu Hgeira sites and core M5-422 (Gulf of Oman) volcanic ash shards are extremely similar (Table 3, see footnote 1). The Si, Ti, Fe, Mn, Mg, and Ca oxide GEOLOGY, April 2000 381 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 0.706 0.708 0.71 0.712 0.714 0.716 Mesopotamian Indus Zagros 87/86Sr εNd Iraqi dust air fall M5-422 (68-70cm) 4025 ± 150 yr B.P. YD core top Leilan Figure 3. Radiogenic isotope (εNd and 87Sr/86Sr) data measured for core M5-422,Tell Leilan–Abu Hgeira (northeast Syria), and samples of atmospheric mineral dust fallout collected in Baghdad, Iraq. Zagros, Indus, and Mesopotamian terrigenous εNd and 87Sr/86Sr end-member compositions are estimated (after Sirocko et al. [1993]). 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 Calendar Age (yr B.P.) 500 250 0 Dead Sea Level (m) Wet Dry Wet Dry -6.0 -5.6 -5.2 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 δ18O (‰) (Soreq Cave, Israel) Akkadian Imperialization Collapse Resettlement Tell Leilan Tephra (68-70 cm) Gulf of Oman core M5-422 Dolomite (% wt.) CaCO3 (% wt.) 0 4 8 12 10 20 30 40 Figure 4. Eolian mineral concentration data for 6000–2000 calendar yr B.P. interval in core M5-422. Calibrated radiocarbon ages of imperialization, collapse, and resettlement phases of Akkadian empire as determined from archeological investigations at Tell Leilan are provided (dates from Weiss et al. [1993]). Mean calibrated ages of these phases, their 2 σ and full age ranges, are represented by filled symbols, boxes, and range bars, respectively. compositions are identical within their joint 1 σ errors, and the Al oxide compositions agree within their joint 2 σ errors (Table 3, see footnote 1). The Na and K oxide compositions are not used for correlation purposes owing to the analytical interference between Na and K volatility with variable water content (Cerling et al., 1985). The relative scarcity of ash shards found in the core M5-422 samples for probe analysis did not permit us to increase the number of shard analyses and thereby reduce error, but the two oxide chemistries are sufficiently close to support a geochemical correlation linking the aridification and social collapse events in time (Fig. 4). DISCUSSION The mineralogic and geochemical data from Gulf of Oman core M5-422 document an abrupt onset of arid conditions in Mesopotamia which occurred near 4025 ± 150 B.P. This aridification event was evidently short-lived, lasting only a few centuries and may have been the result of largescale changes in ocean-atmosphere-vegetation boundary conditions (Claussen et al., 1999). This 4025 B.P. event was of uncommonly large amplitude compared to the rest of the Holocene, and it nearly matched the mineralogic and geochemical amplitudes associated with the Younger Dryas aridification (Figs. 2 and 4). All available evidence indicates that this event records a dramatic midHolocene change in regional climate and is not a depositional artifact due to sediment disturbance or redeposition. The AMS radiocarbon dates increase monotonically across the event (Fig. 2) and there were no visible indications of disturbance at this level in the sediment core. The Nd and Sr isotopic data indicate a proportional increase in terrigenous sediment of Mesopotamian (i.e., eolian) origin (Fig. 3), the volcanic ash chemistry is correlative with tephra extracted from the Tell Leilan–Abu Hgeira sites (northeast Syria) (Table 3, see footnote 1), and the calibrated dates of the aridification and social collapse events are indistinguishable within their joint errors (Fig. 4). Other paleoclimate records from the Middle East have documented shifts to much more arid conditions commencing near 4000–4200 B.P. (Fig. 4). In Lake Van of eastern Turkey, situated at the headwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, oxygen isotopic and other geochemical analyses of lake sediments were used to estimate that lakelevel fell between 30 and 60 m beginning near 4190 B.P. (Lemcke and Sturm, 1997). Stable isotopic records of U/Th-dated cave deposits in Israel document a 20–30% decrease in precipitation between 4200 and 4000 B.P. (Bar-Matthews et al., 1997), and the Dead Sea level fell abruptly by ~100 m at this time (Frumkin, 1991). Drier conditions are also recorded in the High Plateau of Yemen (Wilkinson, 1997), lake levels were anomalously low in subtropical North and East Africa (Gasse and Van Campo, 1994; Halfman and Johnson, 1988) as well as Morocco (Cheddadi et al., 1998). Archeological evidence and regional paleoclimate data collectively implicate abrupt climate change as having been a key factor that contributed to the demise of this sophisticated culture which had imperialized Mesopotamia. Social signatures of the collapse varied geographically; settlements in the rainfed agricultural plains of northern Mesopotamia were dramatically reduced, while populations in the south swelled with the arrival of northern refugees. These dislocations were sufficient to destabilize the region and to fundamentally alter the social, political, and economic fabric of this once-unified culture. Furthermore, these responses occurred despite the fact that the Akkadians had implemented sophisticated grain-storage and water-regulation technologies to buffer themselves against historical (interannual) variations in rainfall (Weiss et al., 1993). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We wish to thank Steve Goldstein,Walter Pitman, and Bill Ryan for their helpful discussion and comments. REFERENCES CITED Al-Bakri, D., Khalaf, F., and Al-Ghadban, A., 1984, Mineralogy, genesis, and sources of surficial sediments in the Kuwait marine environment, northern Arabian Gulf: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 54, p. 1266–1279. Al-Ghadban, A. N., 1990, Holocene sediments in a shallow bay, southern coast of Kuwait, Arabian Gulf: Marine Geology, v. 92, p. 237–254. Bar-Matthews, M.,Ayalon,A., and Kaufman,A., 1997, Late quaternary paleoclimate in the eastern Mediterranean region from stable isotope analysis of speleothems at Soreq Cave, Israel: Quaternary Research, v. 47, p. 155–168. Bard, E., Arnold, M., Mangerud, J., Paterne, M., Labeyrie, L., Duprat, J., Melieres, M. A., Sonstegaard, E., and Duplessy, J.-C., 1994, The North Atlantic atmosphere–sea surface 14C gradient during the Younger Dryas climatic event: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 126, p. 275–287. Cerling, T. E., Brown, F. H., and Bowman, J. R., 1985, Low temperature alteration of volcanic glass: Hydration, Na, K, 18O, and Ar mobility: Chemical Geology, v. 52, p. 281–293. Cheddadi, R., Lamb, H. F., Guiot, J., and van der Kaars, S., 1998, Holocene climatic change in Morocco: A quantitative reconstruction from pollen data: Climate Dynamics, v. 14, p. 883–890. Claussen, M., Kubatzki, C., Brovkin, V., Ganopolski, A., Hoelzmann, P., and Pachur, H. J., 1999, Simulation of an abrupt change in Saharan vegetation in the mid-Holocene: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 26, p. 2037–2030. Clemens, S. C., and Prell, W. L., 1990, Late Pleistocene variability of Arabian Sea summer monsoon winds and continental aridity: Eolian records from the lithogenic component of deep-sea sediments: Paleoceanography, v. 5, p. l09–145. Dia,A., Dupre, B., and Allegre, C. J., 1992, Nd isotopes in Indian Ocean sediments used as a tracer of supply to the ocean and circulation paths: Marine Geology, v. 103, p. 349–359. Frumkin,A., 1991, The Holocene climatic record of the salt caves of Mount Sedom, Israel: The Holocene, v. 1, p. 191–200. Gasse, F., and Van Campo, E., 1994, Abrupt post-glacial climate events in west Asia and north Africa monsoon domains: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 126, p. 435–456. Goldstein, S. L., and O’nions, R. K., 1981, Nd and Sr isotopic relationships in pelagic clays and ferromanganese deposits: Nature, v. 292, p. 324–327. Grousset, F. E., Biscaye, P. E., Zindler, A., Prospero, J., and Chester, R., 1988, Neodymium isotopes as tracers in marine sediments and aerosols: North Atlantic: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 87, p. 367–378. Halfman, J. D., and Johnson, T. C., 1988, High-resolution record of cyclic climatic change during the past 4 ka from Lake Turkana, Kenya: Geology, v. 16, p. 496–500. Hodell, D. A., Curtis, J. H., and Brenner, M., 1995, Possible role of climate in the collapse of Classic Maya civilization: Nature, v. 375, p. 391–394. Lemcke, G., and Sturm, M., 1997, δ18O and trace element measurements as proxy for the reconstruction of climate changes at Lake Van (Turkey): Preliminary results, in Dalfes, H. N., et al., eds., Third millennium B.C. climate change and Old World collapse, Volume 49: Berlin, Springer, p. 178–196 Pouchou, J.-L., and Pichoir, F., 1991, Quantitative analysis of homogeneous or stratified microvolumes applying the model “PAP”, in Heinrich, K. F. J., and Newbury, D. E., eds., Electron probe quantitation: New York, Plenum Press, p. 31–75. Pye, K., 1987, Aeolian dust and dust deposits: London, Academic Press, 334 p. Sandweiss, D. H., Maasch, K. A., and Anderson, D. G., 1999, Transitions in the mid-Holocene: Science, v. 283, p. 499–500. Sirocko, F., 1989, Accumulation of eolian sediments in the northern Indian Ocean; indicators of the climatic history of Arabia and India: Kiel, Geologisch-Paläontologisches Institut und Museum, Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel, v. 27, p. 1–114. Sirocko, F., and Ittekot, V., 1992, Organic carbon accumulation rates in the Holocene and glacial Arabian Sea: Implications for O2 consumption in deep-sea and atmospheric CO2 variations: Climate Dynamics, v. 7, p. 167–172. Sirocko, F., and Sarnthein, M., 1989,Wind-borne deposits in the northwestern Indian Ocean: Record of Holocene sediments versus modern satellite data, in Leinen, M., and Sarnthein, M., eds., Paleoclimatology and paleometeorology: Modern and past patterns of global atmospheric transport: Berlin, Kluwer Academic Publishers, p. 401–433. Sirocko, F., Garbe-Schonberg, D., McIntyre, A., and Molfino, B., 1996, Teleconnections between the subtropical monsoons and high-latitude climates during the last deglaciation: Science, v. 272, p. 526–529. Sirocko, F., Sarnthein, M., Erlenkeuser, H., Lange, H., Arnold, M., and Duplessy, J.-C., 1993, Centuryscale events in monsoonal climate over the past 24,000 years: Nature, v. 364, p. 322–324. Stuiver, M., and Reimer, P. J., 1993, Extended 14C data base and revised CALIB 3.0 14C age calibration program: Radiocarbon, v. 35, p. 215–230. Weiss, H., Courty, M.-A., Wetterstrom, W., Guichard, F., Senior, L., Meadow, R., and Curnow,A., 1993, The genesis and collapse of third millenium north Mesopotamian civilization: Science, v. 261, p. 995–1003. Wilkinson, T. J., 1997, Holocene environments of the high plateau, Yemen. Recent geological investigations: Geoarchaeology, v. 12, p. 833–864. Yoffee, N., and Cowgill, W., 1988, The collapse of ancient Mesopotamian states and civilizations: Tucson, University of Arizona Press, 241 p. Manuscript received August 26, 1999 Revised manuscript received December 21, 1999 Manuscript accepted January 27, 2000 382 Printed in U.S.A. GEOLOGY, April 2000

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