Definitions of social policy:
· a policy of for dealing with social issues
· Social policy primarily refers to guidelines and interventions for the changing, maintenance or creation of living conditions that are conducive to human welfare. Thus, social policy is that part of public policy that has to do with social issues. ....
· A national government's course of action designed to influence the welfare of its citizens.
Need for Social policy
primarily refers to guidelines and interventions for the changing, maintenance or creation of living conditions that are conducive to human welfare. Thus, social policy is that part of public policy that has to do with social issues. The Malcolm Wiener Center for Social Policy at Harvard University describes it as "public policy and practice in the areas of health care, human services, criminal justice, inequality, education, and labor."[1] Social policy often deals with issues which Rittle & Webber (1973) called wicked problems.
Social Policy is also distinct as an academic field which focuses on the systematic evaluation of societies' responses to social need. London School of Economics professor Richard Titmuss is considered to have established Social Policy (or Social Administration) as an academic subject and many universities offer the subject for undergraduate and postgraduate study.
The earliest example goes back to Umar Ibn Khattab's rule as the second caliph of Islam. He used zakah collectionsc and also other governmental resources to establish pensions, income support, child benefits, various stipends for people of the non-muslim community rule Early proponents of scientific social planning, such as the sociologist Auguste Comte, and social researchers, such as Charles Booth, contributed to the emergence of social policy. Surveys of poverty that exposed the brutal conditions that existed, such as in the urban slum conurbations of Victorian Britain, pressured changes such as the reform of the Poor Law and welfare reforms by the British Liberal Party. Other significant examples of social policy are the social security policies introduced by the New Deal in the United States between 1933 and 1935 and health reforms in the UK following the Beveridge Reportof 1942.
Social policy aims to improve human welfare and to meet human needs for education, health, housing and social security. Social policies will be approached in vastly different ways depending on the ideological leanings of the governing power. Important areas of social policy are:
The welfare state
Labour regulation
The term 'social policy' can also refer to policies which govern human behaviour. 'Social policy' may refer to the following issues:
abortion and the regulation of its practice
the legal status of euthanasia
the legal status of homosexuality
the rules surrounding issues of marriage, divorce, and adoption
poverty, welfare, and homelessness and how it is to deal with these issues
the legal status of recreational drugs
the legal status of prostitution
The Social Chapter of European Union law.
SOCIAL PLANNING
Planning represents the ethos of the age. The debate as well as the faith in planning moves almost like pendulum from one end to the other. Intellectual origin of planning can be traced back to many sources and circumstances but the primary impetus for planning came from the Soviet experience. The importance of planning was felt during the worldwide economic depression in the 1930s. It also led to prolonged debate on the need and the nature of planning.
Many countries in Europe and elsewhere resorted to some kind of planning with an eye on military preparedness. The widespread destruction during World War II in many countries in Europe and elsewhere projected the importance of planning as a tool for reconstruction and the rehabilitation of the devastated economies.
After World War II, where many countries in Asia and Africa attained independence, planning was regarded as an important and effective tool for rapid socio-economic development. It was recognised that planning in ttye developing countries attained a central position of importance because in the developing societies, state has to play a much more activist role in the economy in order to fulfil the expectations of the people.-
MEANING OF PLANNING
Planning is preparation for action. Planning is a conscious effort to achieve desired ends. It is a rational method of application of resources for the fulfillment of specific objectives. Planned economy would mean an economic system in which the government controls and regulates production, distribution, prices, etc., through
deciding on acts, purposes and strategies for development beforehand. The term planning has been widely defined and in most cases the definition carried the same viewpoint. Dimock defines planning as 'the use of rational design as contrasted with chance, the reaching of a decision before a line »of action is taken instead of improving after the action has started'. Millett defines, "Planning is the process of determining the objectives of administrative effort and of devising the means. calculated to achieve them". According to Urwick, "Planning is fundamentally an intellectual process, a mental pre-disposition, to do things in an orderly way, to think before acting, and to act in the light of facts rather than guesses. It is the antithesis of.speculative tendency." Seckler-Hudson defined it as "the process of devising a basis for a course of future action". Thus, planning is 'thinking ahead' or thinking before doing. It is an intellectual process of determination of course of action undertaken in a conscious manner.
In short, planning is the conscious process of selecting and developing the best course of action to accomplish defined objective. Planning is thus the exercise of foresight and network of action for defined goals.
NEED FOR PLANNING
The growth of human knowledge and its extending control over the environment made human beings realise the increasing importance of planning in a society. Planning is no more restricted to communist methodology nor associated with totalitarianism and authoritarianism. The old prejudice that planning is unfit for democratic way of living is fast vanishing. Today planning has become popular, the politicians at the highest level plan a policy manning the future of a nation, or seeking the survival of humanity. Every aspect of governmental action is relating the future of a nation, or seeking the survival of humanity. Every aspect of governmental action is to be planned - objectives, policies, organisation, finances, work methods, incentive systems and public relations. Programmes based on well-reasoned priorities are invaluable for such countries as they cannot afford to waste time, people or material. Drawing up plans, usually in the form of five year programmes for public expenditures, in particular relating to capital formation, has in many developing countries become the accepted practice under which the responsible government agencies must look ahead, determine their long range objectives and agree upon certain priorities in the light of the probable demands of the various sectors of the economy. The programmes of the individual government agencies are usually coordinated by a central planning office in the light of overall available financial resources.
PLANNING MACHINERY AT CENTRAL AND STATE LEVEL
The Planning Commission is the machinery for planning at the central level. The Planning Commission is essentially a non-political advisory body which makes recommendations to the government. It has no sanction of its own. Care has been taken to organise it neither as a pure research institute, out of touch with the various political, economic or administrative problems nor as an administrative ministry, which is too closely involved in day-to-day affairs and is prone to lack the perspective and detachment required of a national planning agency. Now we are in the Tenth Plan process.
Organisation and Role of the Planning Commission
The Planning Commission is a multi-member body and the number of members has varied from time to time. In the initial year of its inception, the Commission concentrated mainly on plan formulation. It was composed of only full-time members. The Prime Minister as Chairman of the- Commission provided the needed close relationship with the Central Government. But over the years the Commission got involved in a number of administrative matters and also gathered to itself certain functions of a purely executive nature. The composition of the Commission underwent a substantial change and a number of Union Ministers were appointed as a part time member of the Commission. The Planning Commission was reconstituted in August 1967 on the lines suggested by the ARC except that the Prime Minister continued to be the Chairman of the Commission and the' Union Finance Minister, its part-time member. In addition to full-time members, which varies from three to eight, other Ministers of Central Government have also been appointed as Members for certain specific reasons connected with the portfolios. The appointment of Ministerial Members and Full Members varies according to the party, which comes to power at the center.
Members of the Planning Commission
The composition of the Planning Commission as in 2004 is as follows:
• Prime Minister - Chairman; -
• Deputy Chairman;
• Minister of State (Planning);
• Seven Full time Members; and
• Member-SecretaryThe Planning Commission functions through several divisions and sections, each headed by a senior officer, usually designated as Advisor or Chief or Consultant or Joint Secretary or Joint Advisor. The full time members of the Planning Commission assume responsibility for the day-to-day work of particular divisions, although the Commission functions as a composite body and tenders advice jointly on all-important matters.
The Prime Minister of India being the Chairman of the Planning Commission ever since its inception has added considerably to the prestige of the Commission and helped it a great deal in its coordinating functions at the political level.
Role of Planning Commission
The Planning Commission has been assigned a lot of functions.
1) The Commission makes an assessment of the material, capital and human resources of the country, including technical personnel and investigate the possibilities of augmenting such of these resources as are found to be deficient in relation to the nation's requirements;
2) It formulates a plan for the most effective and balanced utilisation of the country's resources;
3) On a determination of priorities, the Commission defines the stages in which the plan should be carried out and propose the allocation of resources for the due completion of each stage;
4) It indicates the factors which are tending to refund economic development and to determine the condition for the successful execution of the plan;
5) It also determines the nature of machinery which would be necessary for securing the successful implementation of each stage of the plan in all its . aspects;
6) It appraises from time to time the progress achieved in the execution of each stage of the plan and to recommend the adjustment of policy and measures that such appraisal might show to be necessary;
7) Moreover, it makes Isuch interim or ancillary recommendations as might be appropriate on the prevailing economic conditions, and current policies.
In addition to the above, the Government of-India Allocation of Business Rules, has assigned responsibility to the Planning Commission in respect of:
a) Public cooperation in national development
b) Hill Area Development Programme
c) Perspective planning
d) Directorate planning and
e) National Informatics Centre (NIC)
It is, thus, that the Planning Commission was established as a staff agency to prepare national plan for economic development of the country.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
India's governments have established an extensive social welfare system. Programs for children include supplementary nutrition for expectant mothers and for children under seven years of age, immunization and health programs, vacation camps for low-income families, and training for adolescents. There are also services for the blind, deaf, mentally retarded, and orthopedically handicapped. Programs for women include welfare grants, women's adult education, and working women's hostels. Special measures are aimed at rehabilitating juvenile delinquents, prostitutes, and convicts. Begging in public places is forbidden by law in most states and localities. Other social welfare programs cover displaced persons; family planning and maternity care; rural community development; emergency relief programs for drought, flood, earthquake, and other disasters; untouchability (the Harijans); and underdeveloped tribal peoples.
The program for old age, disability, and death benefits are covered by a provident fund with deposit linked insurance for industrial workers in 177 categories. The system is partially funded by insured persons and employers, with a small pension scheme subsidized by the government. There is a social insurance system covering sickness and maternity as well as work injury. The law requires employers to pay a severance indemnity of 15 days pay for each year of employment.
Although the law prohibits discrimination in the workplace, women are paid less than men in both rural and urban areas. Discrimination exists in access to employment, credit, and in family and property law. Laws aimed at preventing employment discrimination, female bondage and prostitution, and the sati (widow burning), are not always enforced. Wife murder, usually referred to as "dowry deaths," are still evident. Domestic violence is commonplace and more than half of women surveyed believe it is justifiable and a normal part of married life. Not only does the male population exceed that of females, but India is also one of the few countries where men, on the average, live longer than women. To explain this anomaly, it has been suggested that daughters are more likely to be malnourished and to be provided with fewer health care services. Female infanticide and feticide is a growing problem is a society that values sons over daughters.
It is estimated there are nearly 500,000 children living and working on the streets. Child prostitution is widespread. Despite its illegality, child marriages are still arranged in many parts of India.
Human rights abuses, including incommunicado detention, are particularly acute in Kashmir, where separatist violence has flared. Although constitutional and statutory safeguards are in place, serious abuses still occur including extrajudicial killings, abuse of detainees, and poor prison conditions. Despite efforts to eliminate discrimination based on the longstanding caste system, the practice remains unchanged.
Community development (CD) is a broad term applied to the practices and academic disciplines of civic leaders, activists, involved citizens and professionals to improve various aspects of local communities.
Community development seeks to empower individuals and groups of people by providing these groups with the skills they need to affect change in their own communities. These skills are often concentrated around building political power through the formation of large social groups working for a common agenda. Community developers must understand both how to work with individuals and how to affect communities' positions within the context of larger social institutions.
There are complementary definitions of community development. The Community Development Challenge report, which was produced by a working party comprising leading UK organisations in the field (including Community Development Foundation, Community Development Exchange and the Federation of Community Development Learning) defines community development as:
"A set of values and practices which plays a special role in overcoming poverty and disadvantage, knitting society together at the grass roots and deepening democracy. There is a CD profession, defined by national occupational standards and a body of theory and experience going back the best part of a century. There are active citizens who use CD techniques on a voluntary basis, and there are also other professions and agencies which use a CD approach or some aspects of it."[1]
Community Development Exchange defines community development as:
“both an occupation (such as a community development worker in a local authority) and a way of working with communities. Its key purpose is to build communities based on justice, equality and mutual respect.
Community development involves changing the relationships between ordinary people and people in positions of power, so that everyone can take part in the issues that affect their lives. It starts from the principle that within any community there is a wealth of knowledge and experience which, if used in creative ways, can be channelled into collective action to achieve the communities' desired goals.
Community development practitioners work alongside people in communities to help build relationships with key people and organisations and to identify common concerns. They create opportunities for the community to learn new skills and, by enabling people to act together, community development practitioners help to foster social inclusion and equality.[2]
A number of different approaches to community development can be recognized, including: community economic development (CED); community capacity building; Social capitalformation; political participatory development; nonviolent direct action; ecologically sustainable development; asset-based community development; faith-based communitydevelopment; community practice social work; community-based participatory research (CBPR); Community Mobilization; community empowerment; community participation; participatory planning including community-based planning (CBP); community-driven development (CDD); and approaches to funding communities directly.
COMMUNITY PLANNING
Community Planning is defined as a process "by which the public services provided in the area of the local authority are provided and the planning of that provision takes place". (Local Government in Scotland Act 2003) Local authorities have a duty to initiate, maintain and facilitate this process and Scottish Ministers have a duty to promote and encourage the use of Community Planning.
A number of public sector organisations are statutory partners in Community Planning. These include the local authority, health board, fire, police, enterprise agency and transport partnership. In addition to the statutory partners, Community Planning Partnerships (CPPs) typically involve other public, voluntary, community and private sector partners.
All over the world there is increasing demand from all sides for more local involvement in the planning and management of the environment. It is widely recognised that this is the only way that people will get the surroundings they want. And it is now seen as the best way of ensuring that communities become safer, stronger, wealthier and more sustainable.
Over the past few decades, a wide range of methods has been pioneered in different countries. They include new ways of people interacting, new types of event, new types of organisation, new services and new support frameworks.
This website provides an overview of these new methods of community planning. It is aimed at everyone concerned with the built environment. Jargon is avoided and material is presented in a universally applicable, how-to-do-it style. Whether you are a resident wanting to improve the place where you live, a policy maker interested in improving general practice, or a development professional working on a specific project, you should quickly be able to find what you need.
The methods described here can each be effective in their own right. But it is when they are combined together creatively that community planning becomes a truly powerful force for positive and sustainable change. Just a few of the many possibilities are featured in the scenarios section towards the end of the website.
In years to come it is possible to imagine that every human settlement will have its own architecture centre and neighbourhood planning offices; that all development professionals will be equipped to organise ideas competitions and planning weekends; that everyone will have access to planning aid and feasibility funds; that all architecture schools will have urban design studios helping surrounding communities; and that everyone will be familiar with design workshops, mapping, participatory editing, interactive displays and other methods described here.
When that happens, there will be more chance of being able to create and maintain built environments that satisfy both individual and community needs, and that are enjoyable to live and work in.
In the meantime the art of community planning is evolving rapidly. Methods continue to be refined and new ones invented. There is a growing network of experienced practitioners. This website will hopefully help with the evolution of community planning by allowing people to benefit from the experience gained so far and by facilitating international exchange of good practice.
The first Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru presented the first five-year plan to the Parliament of India on 8 December 1951. The first plan sought to get the country's economy out of the cycle of poverty. The plan addressed, mainly, the agrarian sector, including investments in dams and irrigation. The agricultural sector was hit hardest by the partition of India and needed urgent attention.[3] The total planned budget of 206.8 billion (US$23.6 billion in the 1950 exchange rate) was allocated to seven broad areas: irrigationand energy (27.2 percent), agriculture and community development (17.4 percent), transport and communications (24 percent), industry (8.4 percent), social services (16.64 percent), land rehabilitation (4.1 percent), and for other sectors and services (2.5 percent).[4] The most important feature of this phase was active role of state in all economic sectors. Such a role was justified at that time because immediately after independence, India was facing basic problems like- deficiency of capital and low capacity to save.
This plan functioned on the basis of a nude model. The Mahalanobis model was propounded by Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis in the year 1953.[citation needed] The second five-year plan focused on industry, especially heavy industry. Unlike the First plan, which focused mainly on agriculture, domestic production of industrial products was encouraged in the Second plan, particularly in the development of the public sector. The plan followed the Mahalanobis model, an economic development model developed by the Indian statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis in 1953. The plan attempted to determine the optimal allocation of investment between productive sectors in order to maximise long-run economic growth . It used the prevalent state of art techniques of operations research and optimization as well as the novel applications of statistical models developed at the Indian Statiatical Institute. The plan assumed a closed economy in which the main trading activity would be centered on importing capital goods.[6][7]
The third plan stressed on agriculture and improving production of rice, but the brief Sino-Indian War of 1962 exposed weaknesses in the economy and shifted the focus towards the Defence industry. In 1965-1966, India fought a war with Pakistan. The war led to inflation and the priority was shifted to price stabilisation. The construction of dams continued. Many cement and fertilizer plants were also built. Punjab began producing an abundance of wheat.
Many primary schools were started in rural areas. In an effort to bring democracy to the grassroot level, Panchayat elections were started and the states were given more development responsibilities.
State electricity boards and state secondary education boards were formed. States were made responsible for secondary and higher education. State road transportation corporations were formed and local road building became a state responsibility. The target growth rate of GDP(gross domestic product)was 4.5 percent.The achieved growth rate was 4.3 percent.[citation needed]
At this time Indira Gandhi was the Prime Minister. The Indira Gandhi government nationalised 14 major Indian banks and the Green Revolution in India advanced agriculture. In addition, the situation in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) was becoming dire as the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and Bangladesh Liberation War took place.
Funds earmarked for the industrial development had to be diverted for the war effort. India also performed the Smiling Buddha underground nuclear test in 1974, partially in response to the United States deployment of the Seventh Fleet in the Bay of Bengal. The fleet had been deployed to warn India against attacking West Pakistan and extending the war.
Stress was laid on employment, poverty alleviation, and justice. The plan also focused on self-reliance in agricultural production and defence. In 1978 the newly elected Morarji Desai government rejected the plan. Electricity Supply Act was enacted in 1975, which enabled the Central Government to enter into power generation and transmission.[citation needed] leaders.
The Indian national highway system was introduced for the first time and many roads were widened to accommodate the increasing traffic. Tourism also expanded.
The sixth plan also marked the beginning of economic liberalization. Price controls were eliminated and ration shops were closed. This led to an increase in food prices and an increase in the cost of living. This was the end of Nehruvian Plan and Rajiv Gandhi was prime minister during this period.
Family planning was also expanded in order to prevent overpopulation. In contrast to China's strict and binding one-child policy, Indian policy did not rely on the threat of force. More prosperous areas of India adopted family planning more rapidly than less prosperous areas, which continued to have a high birth rate.
The Seventh Plan marked the comeback of the Congress Party to power. The plan laid stress on improving the productivity level of industries by upgrading of technology.
The main objectives of the 7th five year plans were to establish growth in areas of increasing economic productivity, production of food grains, and generating employment opportunities.
As an outcome of the sixth five year plan, there had been steady growth in agriculture, control on rate of Inflation, and favourable balance of payments which had provided a strong base for the seventh five Year plan to build on the need for further economic growth. The 7th Plan had strived towards socialism and energy production at large. The thrust areas of the 7th Five year plan have been enlisted below:
Social Justice
Removal of oppression of the weak
Using modern technology
Agricultural development
Anti-poverty programs
Full supply of food, clothing, and shelter
Increasing productivity of small and large scale farmers
Making India an Independent Economy
1989-91 was a period of political instability in India and hence no five year plan was implemented. Between 1990 and 1992, there were only Annual Plans. In 1991, India faced a crisis in Foreign Exchange (Forex) reserves, left with reserves of only about US$1 billion. Thus, under pressure, the country took the risk of reforming the socialist economy. P.V. Narasimha Rao)was the twelfth Prime Minister of the Republic of India and head of Congress Party, and led one of the most important administrations in India's modern history overseeing a major economic transformation and several incidents affecting national security. At that time Dr. Manmohan Singh (currently, Prime Minister of India) launched India's free market reforms that brought the nearly bankrupt nation back from the edge. It was the beginning of privatisation and liberalisation in India.
Modernization of industries was a major highlight of the Eighth Plan. Under this plan, the gradual opening of the Indian economy was undertaken to correct the burgeoning deficitand foreign debt. Meanwhile India became a member of the World Trade Organization on 1 January 1995.This plan can be termed as Rao and Manmohan model of Economic development. The major objectives included, containing population growth, poverty reduction, employment generation, strengthening the infrastructure, Institutional building,tourism management, Human Resource development, Involvement of Panchayat raj, Nagarapalikas, N.G.O'S and Decentralisation and people's participation. Energy was given prority with 26.6% of the outlay. An average annual growth rate of 6.7% against the target 5.6% was achieved.
Ninth Five Year Plan India runs through the period from 1997 to 2002 with the main aim of attaining objectives like speedy industrialization, human development, full-scale employment, poverty reduction, and self-reliance on domestic resources.
Background of Ninth Five Year Plan India: Ninth Five Year Plan was formulated amidst the backdrop of India's Golden jubilee of Independence.
The main objectives of the Ninth Five Year Plan of India are:
to prioritize agricultural sector and emphasize on the rural development
to generate adequate employment opportunities and promote poverty reduction
to stabilize the prices in order to accelerate the growth rate of the economy
to ensure food and nutritional security
to provide for the basic infrastructural facilities like education for all, safe drinking water, primary health care, transport, energy
to check the growing population increase
to encourage social issues like women empowerment, conservation of certain benefits for the Special Groups of the society
to create a liberal market for increase in private investments
During the Ninth Plan period, the growth rate was 5.35 per cent, a percentage point lower than the target GDP growth of 6.5 per cent. [8]
Attain 8% GDP growth per year.
Reduction of poverty ratio by 5 percentage points by 2007;
Providing gainful and high-quality employment at least to the addition to the labour force;*All children in India in school by 2003; all children to complete 5 years of schooling by 2007;
Reduction in gender gaps in literacy and wage rates by at least 50% by 2007;*Reduction in the decadal rate of population growth between 2001 and 2011 to 16.2%;*Increase in Literacy Rates to 75 per cent within the Tenth Plan period (2002 to 2007);
The eleventh plan has the following objectives:
Income & Poverty
Accelerate GDP growth from 8% to 10% and then maintain at 10% in the 12th Plan in order to double per capita income by 2016-17
Increase agricultural GDP growth rate to 4% per year to ensure a broader spread of benefits
Create 70 million new work opportunities.
Reduce educated unemployment to below 5%.
Raise real wage rate of unskilled workers by 20 percent.
Reduce the headcount ratio of consumption poverty by 10 percentage points.
Education
Reduce dropout rates of children from elementary school from 52.2% in 2003-04 to 20% by 2011-12
Develop minimum standards of educational attainment in elementary school, and by regular testing monitor effectiveness of education to ensure quality
Increase literacy rate for persons of age 7 years or above to 85%
Lower gender gap in literacy to 10 percentage point
Increase the percentage of each cohort going to higher education from the present 10% to 15% by the end of the plan
Health
Reduce infant mortality rate to 28 and maternal mortality ratio to 1 per 1000 live births
Reduce Total Fertility Rate to 2.1
Provide clean drinking water for all by 2009 and ensure that there are no slip-backs
Reduce malnutrition among children of age group 0-3 to half its present level
Reduce anaemia among women and girls by 50% by the end of the plan
Women and Children
Raise the sex ratio for age group 0-6 to 935 by 2011-12 and to 950 by 2016-17
Ensure that at least 33 percent of the direct and indirect beneficiaries of all government schemes are women and girl children
Ensure that all children enjoy a safe childhood, without any compulsion to work
Infrastructure
Ensure electricity connection to all villages and BPL households by 2009 and round-the-clock power.
Ensure all-weather road connection to all habitation with population 1000 and above (500 in hilly and tribal areas) by 2009, and ensure coverage of all significant habitation by 2015
Connect every village by telephone by November 2007 and provide broadband connectivity to all villages by 2012
Provide homestead sites to all by 2012 and step up the pace of house construction for rural poor to cover all the poor by 2016-17
Environment
Increase forest and tree cover by 5 percentage points.
Attain WHO standards of air quality in all major cities by 2011-12.
Treat all urban waste water by 2011-12 to clean river waters.
Increase energy efficiency by 20 percentage points by 2016-17