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Michael Hoshang Momeni
Persian Leopard
In Parts, I and II the environmental conditions on the Iranian Plateau and Eurasia were presented. The last glaciation at the maximum extent was about 22,000 years ago; the last glaciation ended about 12,000 years ago.
Homo sapiens have lived in the southern regions of Iranian Plateau for the last 125,000 years. They migrated from the plateau during the brief temperate period from 60,000 years ago to 45,000 years ago.
About 7,000 years ago the climatic change in the North Africa and Western Iran adversely decreased the rainfall and precipitation. The transition to today's arid conditions occurred in several periods:
· 6,700 to 5,500 years ago;
· 4,000 to 3,600 years ago, a severe change in climate;
· About 2,200 years ago another abrupt change in the climate had adverse effects on the biomass.
According to carbon-14 dating, summer temperatures sharply increased, and precipitation decreased. These events were responsible for changes in the socioeconomic developments during these periods. The consequences of these adverse climatic effects should be explored as causes for migrations, wars, fall and the rise of civilizations.
Airya Circles of Evolution: The genesis of Airya
Airyana (Middle Parsi Ērān, Iran) is the land of all Airya people. The Airya people are called Airyan.
The word Airya and Airyan are pronounced as eye-ree-au and eye-ree-on.
The oldest prehistoric village in the Middle East is from Sahneh in the west of Kermanshah, in Kermanshah province, dated to about 12,000 years ago. The evidence for early non-nomadic life during 10,000 to 9,000 years ago was discovered at Jarmo, Sarāb, upper Ali Kosh, and upper Gūrān of the Zagros Mountain region.
Airya hunter-gatherer inhabited the Western-Central Iranian Plateau as late as 12,000 years ago. They formed clans often joining several families; several clans joined together forming tribes. They domesticated ancestors of modern cattle, sheep, and goats about 10,000 BCE, and adopted nomadic-pastoral life herding sheep and goat following the seasonal pastures.
The circle in Figure 1 identifies the region on the West-Central Iranian Plateau, the home of Airya since 10,000 BCE. The inner circle is the probable region of Genesis for Airya. The Proto-Airyan language evolved within the larger region. The dominant populations spreading the language were the nomadic herding tribes. The arrows are suggested routes for the Proto-Airyan language diversion over time, changing the ways the speakers adopted words and pronounced them. Within the larger region, several dialects evolved.
Figure 1: The region for the evolution of Airyan and proto-Iranian language
The agricultural revolution created non-nomadic Airyan settlements on the plateau and the beginning of villages and towns. Airyan communities in the western and central Iran were small, agricultural and predominately nomadic-pastoral populations.
The farming communities included Panthialaei, the Derusiaei, and the Kermanii. The herders’ tribes included Dai, Mardi, Dropici, and Sagartii. Other tribes included: Rhage, Ecbatana, Karkasi, Arizanti, Aspadana, Bussae, Bundii and Paretaceni.
These Airyan tribes had certain common characteristics:
o Nomadic tribes created voluntary associations to regulate the use of pastures;
o Created common defense against common threats;
o Exchanged their domesticated animals for agricultural products they could not produce;
o They developed alliances with non-nomadic villages and towns, and exchanged their excesses;
o Provided military protection to each other and the non-nomadic people.
The climatic change on the Iranian Plateau starting about 7,000 years ago adversely decreased the rainfall and precipitation. The drought, a prolonged period of abnormally low rainfall and the shortage of water, further decreased available water and suitable pastures throughout the Plateau forcing nomadic herders to seek new areas for their herds. The drought destroyed farms, cultivation, and breeding of crops and animals on the Central Iranian Plateau. This was the beginning Airyan tribes and towns migration, following northwesterly into Eurasia, and northeasterly into Central Asia (Fig. 1). By 3600 years ago, the Airyan migrants had expanded deep into Central Asia, the southern regions of the Russian Steppe, and the Indian Subcontinent (Fig. 2). The migrants who had followed the north-easterly direction, the larger circle in Figure 2, established communities as far as Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and India.
The Western Airya population followed a northerly route into Anatolian Plateau, Crimea, Georgia, and Ukraine (smaller circle, Figure 2). The entire blue color demarcation region is Airyana, the lands occupied by Airyan tribes and settlements.
Figure 2: Airyana, the region of Airyan expansion about 3600 years ago.
Among the Eastern Airyan tribes were:
By 9th century BCE, Scythian tribes had established confederated voluntary associations to regulate the use of pastures and establish a common defense against encroaching neighbors. They forged alliances with non-nomadic people. They exchanged their animal goods and military protection for the agricultural products and services. The tribe’s mobility allowed cross-migration within each region in response to any adverse environmental conditions or invasions.
Civilizations evolved independently (Fig. 2) in each region. The Airya people responded to the demands of their vast regional topography, climate, and available resources. Before the Achaemenid Empire, 5th century BCE, each region had an independent government (local king), or a federation of regional tribes, towns, and villages. These local governments managed the defense and regulated the regional resources. These local governments often competed for domination resulting in skirmish or occupation. The nomadic tribes’ mobility and trade facilitated transport of local advances in agriculture, husbandry, and military techniques within the Airyana.
Among the advances were domestication of horse and dog, the creation of wheeled carts for transport, and creating tools of war. Once advancement was observed in any region within Ariyana, or among the other civilizations in Mesopotamia and India, it spread throughout the Airyana.
Media Confederation: Median Empire
During the period of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) Airya peoples of northern and western Iran (Figure 1) were subject to the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Cyaxares united the Airyan tribes into a confederation as Media. The six tribes resided a triangle “Median Triangle” between Ecbatana, Rhagae, and Aspadana, the area between Tehran, Isfahan, and Hamadan (Figs.1, 3). The six Median tribes were:
Figure 3: The regional boundaries of adjacent civilizations relative to Media (Medie) Confederation.
Figure 4: The Apadana Palace in Persepolis, Iran, northern stairway – ancient Achaemenid 5th-century BCE bas-relief shows a Media soldier in traditional Mede costume, behind a Persian archer.
Figure 5: rhyton in gold - western Iran - Media, late 7th- early 6th century BCE
Cyaxares in alliance with Nabopolassar of Babylon, Chaldea, Scythians, and Cimmerians attacked and destroyed the Neo-Assyrian Empire between 616 and 605 BCE. The Confederation established the Median kingdom (Fig. 3).
The Media was the second Airyan Kingdom; the first had been established by the legendary King Freydun. The Median confederation expanded to form the Median Empire. Figure 4 shows the military uniform of a Median soldier. The gold vessel (rhyton) is one of the pieces of evidence of Median civilization (Fig. 5). This rhyton often was intended to be used in official ceremonies.
The Median Empire had created the foundation for Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Achaemenid Empire. The population of Media, their culture, and advances in society were absorbed into the new Achaemenid Empire.
Airya people do not all look alike today:
Airyan of Nuristan speaks an ancient Iranian dialect.
Part IV presents Achaemenid Empire (Persian Empire).
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