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Romans 13:1-7 and Christian Submission to Civil Government
(sample paper 2)
Detailed analysis: key terms in this passage
Verse 1: The first words are “all souls.” Everyone, Christian or not, Jewish or Gentile, should be subject to authority. God has ordained civil powers. Paul is not referring to specific individuals,[1] but to the offices of authority, or to the principle of civil rule.
“Be subject” is perhaps the most important term in this passage. Earlier in Romans, Paul used the word to discuss refusal to submit to God’s law (8:7) and to his righteousness (10:3), and God’s decree to subject the creation to futility (8:20). The first two refer to voluntary submission; the latter shows involuntary control. The meaning is flexible, as shown in other NT uses.[2]
The word does not imply absolute obedience. Since God assigned civil government, he has greater authority, so civil leaders cannot command people to disobey God.[3] Both God and government are ruling, and a person cannot give absolute allegiance to a subordinate authority.
Verse 2: A resisting person is antitassomenos, someone against order. The present-tense participle indicates a persistent approach, not an isolated incident of disobedience.
“What God has appointed.” Diatagē, a cognate of tassô, is “that which has been specifically ordered or commanded.”[4] God’s ordinance is the existence of government itself, not necessarily the specific rulers or the specific laws, so we cannot assume that all civil laws are in themselves divinely ordained.
Verse 4: “Bear the sword” means “to have the capacity or authority to punish.”[5] Since the instrument of punishment is a lethal weapon, this implies that civil authorities have the right to execute. This again suggests that Paul is addressing rebellion, not petty infractions.
Verse 5: Syneidesis, or conscience, can mean either 1) awareness of facts or 2) “the psychological faculty which can distinguish between right and wrong.”[6] The former seems to fit the context better.[7] Believers submit not only to avoid punishment, but also because they know that God has ordained civil functions.
Verse 6: Because of “this,” we also pay taxes. “This” seems to refer to the entire discussion, including God’s institution of civil authority, the civil punishments and conscience.
“Taxes” in 6a and 7a is a translation of phoros —“payment made by the people of one nation to another, with the implication that this is a symbol of submission and dependence.”[8] The other kind of tax in 13:7 is telos—indirect taxes such as customs duties and tolls.[9]
Verse 7: Paul began this section with a universal imperative; he ends it with a universal imperative: Pay to everyone what is due — not just taxes, but also respect and honor. “Pay” is apodote, meaning to pay back. It implies that the state has a legitimate claim to the money.[10]
Synthesis: The message in its original context
Let us go through the passage again to notice the flow of Paul’s argument:
Verse 1: Paul begins with a command and supports it with a theological reason: Submit to civil rule because God has ordained civil powers. Paul is not referring to specific individuals, but to the general principle of civil rule.[11] Although current world powers are temporary (13:11-12) and are ultimately opposed to Christ’s rule (2 Cor 4:4), they are legitimate.
Verse 2: Because God has authorized civil government, people who resist all civil authority are resisting something that God has ordained, and for that they will be judged. The verbs show that Paul is discussing persistent resistance, not an isolated incident.
What kind of “judgment” will come on the rebellious? The structure of the passage, with statement and consequence in both 13:2 and 3, suggests that Paul is referring to divine judgment for ongoing subversion or anarchy.
Verse 3: People who do good need not fear the government, since rulers punish bad people, not good ones. This is a generality. Paul knows that Jesus did good and was nevertheless punished as an evildoer; Paul himself had suffered for preaching the good news.
Paul’s purpose in this passage is to instruct Christians about what they should do, and his comments about civil legitimacy serve his practical purpose. His theological foundation is generalized, and we should be cautious about applying his comments to other situations. He describes the way government ought to be; he does not address the situation in which government does the opposite of its God-given function.[12]
Verse 4: Persistent rebels will suffer punishment; it is not clear whether Paul is thinking primarily of civil punishment or divine punishment.[13]
Verse 5: Christians should submit not only because of wrath — not only to avoid punishment — but also because of conscience. Rom 13 presupposes that civil rulers are using their delegated authority rightly; it does not address the question of unjust orders.
Verse 6: We pay taxes because God has authorized civil governments, and taxes are the means by which governments pay for their legitimate functions. Paul is giving a specific example of a way in which the Roman Christians should submit to government.
Verse 7: To whom do Christians owe respect and honor? Dunn writes, “Given the theology of good government, ‘fear’ is a proper response to God-appointed authority.”[14] That is, Christian owe respect to civil authority because God has ordained it.
In summary, Paul wanted to ensure that Christians in Rome did not become involved in a revolt. He does not give a complete theology of the state — he gives only enough theological background to serve his argument, which focuses on the specific issue of taxes.
He prefaces his comments by the general admonition to do good even to evil people, and he follows his comments by noting the universal obligation to love. Paul notes that civil rulers punish people who harm society and leave good citizens in peace, or even reward them. (There are exceptions, but civil government usually operates in this way.) It would not be wrong to work against specific injustices, but it is wrong to work against government itself, because the principle of civil government is beneficial. As rulers do their assigned jobs to punish evil, even using the sword, they are doing work authorized by God. This does not mean that every civil judgment is divinely authorized, but it means that civil rulers are authorized to make judgments. So if people are doing wrong as an ongoing practice, then they have reason to fear.
Taxes pay for the good functions that civil government does. Paul uses an imperative: Pay your taxes. Taxes belong to the authorities (the offices, not the individuals), so people should give the money to them. Taxes are an obligation of good citizens. Christians should not be anarchists or rebels. Even though they preach another Lord and another kingdom, they are law-abiding, not a threat to the existing civil governments.
Theological significance
This passage touches on the topic of theological anthropology, the role of humanity in God’s design for his creation. God created humanity in his own image, to be his representative on earth, and even though humanity became corrupted by sin, humans continue to be made in the image of God, and have a responsibility to perform certain roles. Just as there seems to be a hierarchy and a division of labor among the angels, so also it seems that God designed human society to function with some sort of hierarchy and organization. Just as in the church God does not give all persons the same spiritual gifts, so also in society not all people have the same strengths. In the church, some have a gift of leadership, and so also in society.
Even a perfect society has some organization, and some appointed roles of leadership. In a society beset by sin, these roles are still needed, and so God has ordained civil rulers to have authority. Its purpose is to discourage evil and to promote good behavior; the fact that it does not rule perfectly does not negate the need for government to have such functions. We see in this passage that God has ordained civil authorities for a good purpose, and God consequently desires that his people support the principle of human civil government. But this does not necessarily mean supporting every law and every despotic ruler, as we shall see in the next section.
Do other biblical passages support this? The hierarchy that God ordained for ancient Israel provides some supporting evidence, although that evidence might be discounted due to the peculiar circumstances Israel was in, and the fact that its laws were designed from the start to be temporary (Gal. 3:19). However, submission to and respect for civil government is also taught in the New Testament – see 1 Tim 2:1-2, Tit 3:1, and 1 Pet 2:13-15.
These verses agree: although believers are citizens of heaven, they must still be citizens subject to earthly governments. As Hultgren says, “The new life in Christ does not exempt one from civic obligations.”[15] Civil governments serve a God-given function, and consequently believers should support the principle of civil government, which means in most situations to support the current manifestation of civil government, even when it has serious flaws.
Rev 13 is a passage that provides a contrasting view, for it symbolizes the Roman civil government as a beast that opposes the people and work of God. We should also note that Rome is the civil power that crucified Jesus and his apostles. Yet nothing in those passages authorizes believers to try to overthrow a corrupt civil power.
Application in modern situations
When we apply Paul’s teachings to other situations, we may arrive at more questions than answers. Paul spoke of broad principles; he did not address the problems that arise when fallen humans are asked to administer godly goals or when the governments fail to perform their God-ordained functions. But these are the issues about which Christians today want ethical guidance.
Some interpreters, civil rulers in particular, have used this passage to demand complete compliance with their wishes. Such an interpretation misconstrues what Paul wrote. Although in most situations obedience is a practical result of submission, exceptions may be allowed. Jesus did not submit to the demands of Judean leaders who had civil and religious authority. He submitted to the God and suffered the civil penalty. Under some circumstances, when conflicting orders have been given, submission to a higher authority (God) is required.
Second, Paul did not give theological legitimacy to specific human rulers or laws, nor to the Roman Empire or to any form of government. Instead, God has ordained civil authorities as a general principle. Therefore, the person who persistently resists the principle of civil authority — a person who refuses to recognize any legitimate functions of civil government — is working against what God wants, and such a resister will incur judgment. Paul is not discussing an otherwise law-abiding person who believes that a particular civil law is not compatible with Christian duty. Rather, he is describing an anarchist, a rebel, and a tax resistance movement such as may have been developing in Rome.
Christian submission becomes more difficult when civil legitimacy is clouded. Few civil governments have acquired power legitimately. Almost all, including the Roman rulers when Paul wrote, took it by violence from someone else, or their ancestors did. There is usually no question as to who is exercising authority, but there are occasional times of transition (e.g., a civil war) when it is hard to know who the “ruler” is. For practical purposes, Christians have to treat most governments as legitimate and submit to those who actually have civil power.
Another question may arise when there is a big difference between written law and de facto law. In some places, bribes are illegal, but nothing can be done without them. Should the Christian submit to the person exercising authority, or to a written law that is functionally powerless? In some situations a bribe is for practical purposes an ad hoc tax that supplements the inadequate salaries of government officials. Some of the payments extracted by Roman tax collectors seem little different than modern bribes, but Paul advised paying them.
How does submission apply in modern democracies? In a democracy, all voters have some authority for a few moments each year, and then they relinquish authority to the elected officials who have the responsibility to exercise day-to-day authority. Is political participation, such as voting or lobbying, a Christian duty? Participation was not an option at the time Paul wrote, so this passage does not give commands for such a situation.
Conclusion
Christians should, as conscience and wisdom allow, obey civil authority. We recognize its legitimacy; we know that the divine replacement has not yet come. We recognize its imperfections, but as a general rule we submit. Civil authority, at least in principle, is for good purposes, and we therefore support it by paying all the taxes we owe. If there is a conflict between what God wants and what civil powers want, we obey God, the higher authority. Individual laws may be broken for conscience’ sake, but there is no biblical support for rebellion against government per se or a blanket refusal to pay taxes. There are many gray areas not specifically addressed in the Bible, and these call for wisdom and prayer.
Works cited
Dunn, J. D. G. Romans. Word Biblical Commentary 38B. Dallas: Word, 1988.
Earle, Ralph. Word Meanings in the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988.
Furnish, Victor Paul. The Moral Teaching of Paul. 2nd ed. Nashville: Abingdon, 1985.
Hultgren, Arland J. Paul’s Letter to the Romans: A Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2011.
Käsemann, Ernst. Commentary on Romans. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980.
Kittel, Gerhard, and Gerhard Friedrich. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Trans. and abridged by G.W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1988.
Louw, Johannes P., and Eugene A. Nida. Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains. New York: United Bible Societies, 1988.
McDonald, James I. H. “Romans 13.1-7 and Christian Social Ethics Today.” Modern Churchman 29(2) (1987): 19-25.
Wink, Walter. Naming the Powers: The Language of Power in the New Testament. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984.
[1] In verse 3, Paul uses archontes to refer to the specific humans who occupy the offices of authority. Exousiai is the more abstract word, referring to powers in general. “Archôn always means an incumbent-in-an-office…. Exousia denotes the legitimations and sanctions by which power is maintained; it generally tends to be abstract” (Walter Wink, Naming the Powers: The Language of Power in the New Testament (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984), 10.
[2] In 1 Cor 15:27-28 and Phil 3:21, Paul uses it in connection with God’s authority over everything. That is subjection by force; voluntary submission is shown in these passages: “In the NT the term has a wide range of meaning centering on the idea of enforced or voluntary subordination” (Gerhard Delling, in Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich, Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. (Trans. and abridged by G.W. Bromiley; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1988), 1159.
[3] Even in the secular world, commands given by subservient authorities cannot rescind or contravene the orders of their superiors. (Paul spells this argument out, treating it as axiomatic, in 1 Cor 15:27.)
[4] Johannes P. Louw and Eugene A. Nida, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains. (New York: United Bible Societies, 1988), 1:426.
[5] Ibid., 1:490.
[6] Ibid., 1:324.
[7] Paul does not assume that the readers already have a correct moral sensitivity. In chapters 14-15, he indicates that the weak have overly scrupulous moral sensitivities.
[8] Louw and Nida, §57.182, 578. Phoros corresponds to the Roman tributum (Victor Paul Furnish, The Moral Teaching of Paul. 2nd ed. Nashville: Abingdon, 1985.132, and Dunn 766).
[9] James I. H. McDonald, “Romans 13.1-7 and Christian Social Ethics Today,” Modern Churchman 29(2) (1987): 19-25.23-24 and Furnish, 132.
[10] Paul uses the same word in 12:17. Christians are to return good instead of evil. “This word was used regularly in the papyri for a promise to pay back borrowed money…. Taxes are a debt which one owes the government and…paying them is therefore a legal and moral obligation” (Ralph Earle. Word Meanings in the New Testament [Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988], 206).
[11] Paul argues from a general principle because the motives for civil disobedience could differ for Jews and Gentiles. Since some Romans disagreed with Paul’s gospel, he could not argue for civil legitimacy simply because civil government was assisting the gospel. Paul had to argue from a theological basis, a general principle.
[12] “Romans 13 is concerned with the norm of civil obedience rather than with the problem of civil disobedience” (McDonald 22). “He is silent about possible conflicts and the limits of earthly authority. The basis of what he demands is reduced to a minimum, while exegesis usually seeks [incorrectly] to take from it a maximum” (Ernst Käsemann,. Commentary on Romans (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980), 354.
[13] It may be human wrath or punishment, even though the word usually refers to God’s wrath. In Rom 13:4, “wrath” seems paired with the ruler’s sword. The ruler is God’s agent, so in an indirect sense the punishment is also from God. Paul does not imply that every specific punishment is divinely sanctioned. Rather, the government’s ability or right to punish is divinely authorized.
[14] J. D. G. Dunn, Romans (Word Biblical Commentary 38B; Dallas: Word, 1988), 768
[15] Arland J. Hultgren, Paul’s Letter to the Romans: A Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2011), 375.