Paradiso Summaries

Canto I Summary

As Dante begins to rise from the top of Purgatory into the realm of Paradise he remarks on an increase in light and on the difficulty of explaining his experience in words—in this situation our human intellect simply fails us. The poet also invokes the ancient Greek god Apollo as his muse for this third section of his Divine Comedy, asking for help in conveying some small glimpse of Paradise in the hope of improving the prayers of the living.

The sun is now rising above Mount Purgatory, and Beatrice and Dante are able to look right at it in the way that only eagles can. They are rising upwards through the power of the light of God and passing beyond the fire thought to surround the earth—this fire makes everything around them even brighter. Beatrice has fixed her gaze upon the concentric spheres above, which lead to God’s presence, but Dante is staring at Beatrice and still thinking in earthly terms about their situation. Beatrice, acting the mother to Dante the child, explains that his false ideas, brought with him from his earthly experience, will only impede his understanding here in Paradise—he must let go of them: the order of the universe beyond earth that he will now experience reflects God’s love. He created such a harmonious system that one can experience the music of the spheres here, and there is a movement within the system which reflects a divinely-ordained destiny for all created things, whether inanimate or animate (like humans and angels)—everything and everyone was originally designed to fly like an arrow towards the bull’s-eye of God’s presence, or the ultimate good as described in Aristotle’s teleological model. Unfortunately, the creatures endowed with God’s greatest gifts, especially the gift of free will, are also fallen creatures who tend to fall downward rather than fly upward. But now Dante and Beatrice are on the right trajectory: up they go!

Canto II Summary

Dante now warns his average readers: you cannot follow me where I am going (i.e. to salvation) unless you are prepared through the study of religious (Christian) truth—he employs a ship metaphor to describe his journey; his ship is driven by Minerva and guided by Apollo. Without such preparation, one would be like the awestruck crew of the Argo (i.e. the Argonauts) watching Jason perform his famous heroic feats. Thus, Dante and Beatrice rise up into the sphere of the moon, thirsting after God and finding themselves within a moon which is bright and yet still solid. This leads Dante to wonder about the darkspots one observes on the moon—surely they do not reflect the common myth that that is where Cain has been confined for eternity, but what about the rational scholastic theory that Dante has come to accept, that the spots are caused by variations in the density and rarity of the moon’s substance, which makes some spots less reflective of light? Beatrice rejects this explanation as too simplistic: if it were simply a matter of varying densities, one would observe some light coming through the moon during an eclipse; she then uses an explanation of starlight to help Dante understand that it is not just a matter of the physical properties of density and rarity that explain why some stars appear brighter than others: a simple experiment with mirrors placed at different distances reflecting a light shows that while a light might be smaller or larger in quantity, its brightness will not vary in quality. The answer is more metaphysical: the starlight is crafted by angelic intelligences whose virtues determine its brightness—to understand the brightness of a star requires more than reason and logic. Beatrice likens her teaching to the effect of the sun on snow: she will melt away Dante’s errors until he has been brought back to his natural state of intelligence.

Canto III Summary

Dante is about to acknowledge the truths just taught him by Beatrice, who is here compared to the sun, when he becomes distracted by what he thinks is a reflection in the moon. Looking around for the people who are being reflected—responding in a manner opposite to the mythological story of Narcissus—he realizes with Beatrice’s help that they are not reflections, but the faces of real souls. These are the souls of those who failed in their vows, and Beatrice encourages him to speak to them, for despite their failure in life they do reside in Paradise and speak God’s truth. Dante picks out one of the faces and asks her who she is. The figure tells him that he should recognize her as Piccarda Donati, even though she does now appear even more beautiful than she had in life. Piccarda informs Dante that even though she is appearing here in the lowest sphere of Paradise because of her failure to maintain her monastic vows, she is still full of joy. Dante wonders if she doesn’t wish that she could reside higher up, closer to God, but she explains that she resides where she does because that is where God wills her to reside, and as a resident of Paradise, her only desire is to do whatever God wills.

Piccarda briefly tells her story, how she entered a convent of the Poor Clares, whose founder resides higher up in Paradise, and took monastic vows but was then abducted from the cloister by her brother who wanted to use her to make a marriage alliance. Then she points to a soul next to her and says that the same thing happened to this Constance, the mother of Emperor Frederick II Hohenstaufen, although she admits that Constance remained more faithful to her vows outside of the convent. Having finished her explanations to Dante, Piccarda begins singing Ave Maria and vanishes from his sight. Dante then turns back to Beatrice, who now appears much brighter to him than the souls who inhabit the sphere of the moon.

Canto IV Summary

Dante finds himself standing there rather stunned and bewildered by the questions that have popped into his head following this encounter. Just as Daniel before Nebuchadnezzar, Beatrice divines the questions in his mind that have left him in this stupor: How is it that the actions of others have decreased the reward for these women who were dragged out of their convents by force and against their will? Or (a scary, heretical thought) is it simply that the stars govern our fate, as the astrologers say, so there is nothing they could have done to avoid this situation?

Beatrice answers the second question first: You have to realize that every soul in Paradise dwells in God’s Paradise; it’s just that some souls are able to enjoy the experience even more because of the way that they experience God Himself. Thus, the appearance of these women in the sphere of the Moon merely reflects their overall state of happiness in Paradise—they don’t literally dwell there; they dwell with God, as does everyone in Paradise. What Dante is observing is merely the perception of his own senses, according to his own understanding—like when the scriptures describe God with arms and feet or angels with human faces: God doesn’t literally have hands and feet, but such a description allows us humans to better understand his actions. Likewise, when Plato says in the Timaeus that our souls return to the star that we originally came from, this should be read allegorically—read in a non-literal way, it reflects a real truth. Thus, when Dante sees souls residing in the sphere of the Moon, they are not literally dwelling there; it is allegorical in order to help Dante understand a deeper truth. In this way, even astrology carries some measure of truth, as long as one realizes that nothing can remove the freedom of our own will.

So, for the nuns who were dragged out of their convents, we must understand that their ultimate status in heaven reflects the true quality of their will in dealing with their situation. Piccarda and Constance were simply not as firm of will as a St. Lawrence or a Mucius Scaevola, a saint and a Roman who exhibited an iron will in support of their convictions—if they had somehow become free from their tortuous situation, they would have returned to their original position and submitted to the pain again rather than accept the new situation.

Beatrice knows that Dante is now wondering how it was that Piccarda, residing in heaven, could lie about Constance’s firmity to her vows—clearly, her status suggests a less than iron will, despite Piccarda’s claims otherwise. Beatrice assures Dante that while Constance’s will has been truly judged to merit her present status, Piccarda was not lying: Constance never consciously willed to abandon her vows; however, deep down, perhaps even unconsciously, Constance’s determination to maintain her vows did waver out of a fear of what might happen were she to try to return to her convent. That fear overcame her will.

Dante now desires that God should reward Beatrice for imparting this wisdom to him. Without her intervention and the full extent of the truth of the matter, his own intellect would have never come to any satisfying resolution of the questions which had beset his mind. But, Dante has a follow-up question: Is it ever possible to do enough penance to overcome the eternal effects of a broken vow? Beatrice’s presence now overpowers Dante because she is so full of joy that Dante has come to pose such a question. . .

Canto V Summary

Beatrice reassures Dante with an explanation for her overpowering presence—she is filled with love rooted in the perfect vision of God; and she can tell that Dante is now on the path to achieve a similar vision. She then addresses his question about making good an abandoned vow: at the heart of the matter is the fact that God has given to every creature equipped with an intellect the freedom of the will. This is why vows are worth so much—by freely entering into a covenant with God, man makes the greatest possible sacrifice that he can. So, what could possibly be worth as much as that? Any good that you do after breaking such a vow would be to do so with stolen resources.

She encourages Dante to listen closely as she delves further into this issue—remember: knowledge only comes from actually absorbing what one hears and learns. The sacrificial act of entering into this covenant with God consists of two stages: the promise and then the fulfillment of that promise. Thus, the contract cannot be ended until all its terms have been met, and one cannot substitute anything else for one’s free will freely offered—indeed, if, as the ancient Hebrews had been allowed to make substitute offerings as part of their covenant, we should be permitted to make a substitution, it could not be made according to our will, and thus it becomes quite a difficult matter to arrange. Only God, or his earthly representative wielding the keys of justice of mercy, might contemplate such a substitution, but even then it should be done rarely and with a substitution of even greater value (a sacrifice worth one and half times the original)—if that is not possible, the substitution should not be permitted. Period.

Beatrice finishes by invoking the examples of Jephthah and Agamemnon as a warning against making vows lightly or foolishly—their vows only led to the death of their daughters, and not necessarily for a greater cause. Christians should also be wary of making vows in the expectation that the Church might relieve them of them or allow them to commute them with money. Having thus concluded, Beatrice leads Dante up to the next sphere.

Entering into the realm of Mercury, the planet becomes even brighter with Beatrice’s added glow, and Dante sees hundreds of souls coming towards them rejoicing in an opportunity to increase the love of God through Dante. They beg him to ask them questions which will allow them to share their light and love. Beatrice encourages one of their number to advance and speak, while Dante admits he does not know the soul’s name or why he appears to him in this particular sphere. The soul grows brighter, in some sense becoming less visible to Dante’s eyes because of his increasing brightness.

Canto VI Summary

The soul now introduces himself as the Emperor Justinian, part of a long line of Roman rulers going back to Aeneas. Justinian notes his greatest accomplishment: the creation of the Digest, a synthesis of Roman law. He admits that he had been an adherent of the monophysite heresy (believing that Christ had only a divine nature and not a human nature) early in his reign, until Pope Agapetus brought him back to the truth. Having returned to the truth, God inspired him to complete his work on the law, and to leave military campaigning to his general Belisarius.

Justinian now proposes to recount a history of the Roman eagle (symbolizing imperial power) in order to provide some perspective on the conflict between Guelph (anti-imperial faction) and Ghibelline (pro-imperial faction) in medieval Italy. This power was founded by Aeneas following the death of Pallas (a young man in the Aeneid whose death sparks Aeneas’s triumph and establishment of his people in Italy), and continued to grow at the site of Alba Longa, until the monarchy was established at Rome. Justinian alludes to several stories from the early period of Roman history: the Horatii, the Sabine women, and Lucretia. He continues with reference to the sack of Rome by Brennus the Gaul, the invasion of Pyrrhus of Epirus, and the exploits of Manlius Torquatus, Quinctius Cincinnatus, Decius Mus, and the many members of the Fabius clan. Of especial mention is the defeat of Hannibal and the triumphs of Scipio and Pompey, which eventually brought about the rise of Caesar and his victories in Gaul, Italy, Spain, Greece, and Egypt. All this led, following the treason of Brutus and Cassius and the fall of Cleopatra, to the establishment of the Roman peace under Caesar Augustus. This second emperor was followed by a third: Tiberius Caesar, under whose justice Christ was executed. Justinian concludes this account with mentions of the emperors Titus and Charlemagne.

With this history in mind, we can better judge the conflict between Guelph and Ghibelline and the crisis this has caused. The problem is that the Guelphs, allied to the French (Charles of Anjou, ruler of Naples), oppose the rightful imperial power, while the Ghibellines hope to take all power for themselves and deprive everyone of the blessings of imperial justice. Both sides shall fail if they do not submit to true imperial power.

Justinian concludes by noting that this sphere of Mercury is filled with righteous spirits who worked for imperial glory on earth, but perhaps got a little too wrapped up in the pursuit of imperial justice to the neglect of cultivating their love for God. Justinian expresses gratitude that God would take such imperfect men like this into Paradise. Indeed, the variety of saved souls in Paradise makes it all the more glorious. Justinian concludes by pointing to the example of one Romeo, who had worked zealously for Count Raymond Berengar (of Provence), successfully arranging for his four daughters to make royal marriages, until his enemies at court contrived to have him dismissed from service and to end his days a poor old man—he was a man who deserved better.

Canto VII Summary

Now Justinian and those around him start dancing, while Dante screws up his courage to ask Beatrice a question. He can’t do it, but Beatrice anticipates him anyway: She offers a commentary on the idea of a just revenge deserving a just punishment. Everything goes back to Adam’s transgression in the Garden of Eden and his expulsion, which was only rectified when Christ came to earth and made it possible for Adam’s soul to return into God’s presence. The penalty Christ had to pay for the sins which resulted among mankind was totally just, except that it was paid by the one person who had not participated in the guilt thereby expunged. But in the end, all was balanced out and Beatrice can assert that God always acts justly.

But now Dante is puzzled by why the atonement had to be worked out in this particular way. The answer, says Beatrice, is simply love. God might have simply pardoned man for his sins, since there was no way he would have been able to pay for his sins himself, but instead by taking on flesh and dying for our sins, God could demonstrate the full extent of His love for mankind, by satisfying the demands of justice through this merciful act.

Finally, Dante wonders about the fallen state of the world, since it was made by a perfect, eternal God. Beatrice explains that those things created directly (or primarily in Aristotelian terms) by God (like heaven and the angels) are indeed unfallen, eternal creations, but creations created indirectly (or secondarily) are more removed from God and because of the involvement of created things in their creation (i.e. parents who produce the body into which the eternal soul of man is put by God), they are subject to degradation. Thus, we can be created by God and yet still require redemption from sin.

Canto VIII Summary

Dante now finds himself in the sphere of Venus, which he notices because Beatrice has become even more beautiful here. He also sees dancing lights and hears souls singing Hosanna in a most beautiful way. A speaker approaches from among those lights, who promise to give him some pleasure because they are filled with love. Dante asks the speaker who he is. He responds that Dante can’t quite see him because he is shrouded in happiness. While the speaker never directly names himself, he describes the territories he would have ruled in life had he lived to inherit them all, in such a way that it is clear the speaker is Charles Martel of Anjou, titular king of Hungary. Dante, who had once met Charles in Florence, is happy to find him here in Paradise, but as he reflects on Charles’s wider family still in the world (the Angevin rulers of Naples, Provence, and Hungary), he comes to ask how it is that a good father can have a bad son.

In response, Charles offers a lengthy Aristotelian discourse about divine Providence: When God created the universe, he ordered it and provided instruments (the stars and planets) to help maintain that order (and thus avoid the chaos into which nature would inherently fall otherwise), such that all created things move like an arrow towards its intended target (this is what is called predestination), although within the system, there is room for human free will to be exercised. Charles gets Dante to agree that mankind is best off living within human society (rather than alone), but for that society to achieve its ultimate purpose, it must have people who perform a variety of functions (lawmakers, generals, priests, and artisans, for example). The problem is that if nature was allowed to take its course unhindered, all men would be exactly the same, from father to son—it is divine Providence that makes some men good at one thing and others at another thing., but human beings do not always heed these natural dispositions and force, for example, natural rulers to serve as priests; thus, if a father forces his seed to act contrary to his natural disposition, the son will inevitably be worse than the father. Thus, Charles (i.e. Dante) alludes to his brother Louis’s laying down of his crown to join the Franciscans, leaving the throne to his younger brother Robert, who was clearly born to be a preacher not a ruler. If only Charles Martel had lived longer, laments Dante.

Canto IX Summary

Dante now warns Charles’s wife Clemence of more trouble for their family, but he cannot say more about it, since he was sworn to secrecy, except to assure her that vengeance will eventually come. When Charles turns back to face the sun (God), Dante then addresses a bright new soul, Cunizza da Romano, who admits that she is well placed in heaven, since she was a lover in life and has now turned her love towards God. She laments all the damage and destruction her family has done in her home region of Treviso, and begins to introduce the shining soul next to her. Then she launches into a bitter judgment of the people, the bloodshed, and the conflicts that will continue to rage in that region of Italy—she insists she can render such judgments because Venus is the sphere of the angels known as Thrones, through whom God judges. Having spoken thus, she turns back to dance with the other souls in this sphere.

Now Dante turns his attention to the famous poet that Cunizza had started to introduce, one Foulquet de Marseilles. He too admits that this is the right sphere for him, a lover to match other famous lovers like Dido, Phyllis, and Hercules. He reminds Dante that here in Paradise they no longer repent of the sins they can no longer remember but rather they simply smile at God’s providence that ultimately brought them here and contemplate God’s love and goodness.

Foulquet then introduces a third shining soul whom Dante has been wondering about: Rahab holds the highest rank in this sphere, since she was the very first soul to be redeemed when Christ harrowed up hell. This was fitting for she was the one who helped Joshua when he first started conquering the Promised Land. Foulquet concludes by declaring that Florence, Dante’s hometown, was really founded by Satan, the first being who rebelled against God, and thus it has become totally corrupted with his envy, starting with its clergy whose desire for profits have led the rest of its citizens further astray. Indeed, he says, the whole church, from the pope on down, now spends all its time studying canon law rather than the scriptures, in the hope of accruing advantages to itself, instead of using its power and influence to win back the Holy Land—he looks forward to a crusade which will help get things back into their proper order.

Canto X Summary

God and his Son, from whom the Holy Spirit emanates, created the universe and we can experience God by observing it. So, says Dante addresses his reader, look to the heavens and contemplate God. This system is so perfect—if God hadn’t made it just so, it would collapse. Now, consider your joy in contemplating the works of God, and feast upon the words now presenting it all to you in this poem.

Now, the sun was shining down on God’s earthly creations, and Dante finds himself ascended, under Beatrice’s guidance, to the circle of that bright orb in no time at all. Here, everything is revealed by the light, which Dante cannot really explain in words. This is a light brighter than anything people can really comprehend. And the souls manifesting themselves here in the fourth sphere are even brighter than the sun! Beatrice urges Dante to give thanks to God for this experience, and the poet does so, focusing all his love on God such that he forgets Beatrice for the moment. This actually pleases Beatrice.

Now Dante is surrounded by the souls of this sphere who make a circle around him like a crown, comparable to the halo that sometimes encircles the moon on a foggy night. The souls sing of the jewels (precious souls) that inhabit the abode of God and can only be seen and understood by one who visits there. The souls, described as little suns themselves, sing of Christ’s birth in the flesh and of the Trinity, and dance about Dante and Beatrice three times.

Then Dante is addressed by Thomas Aquinas, the famous and learned Dominican friar, who praises Dante’s own light, whose power cannot be resisted or ignored. So, Thomas begins by identifying his mentor, Albertus of Cologne (i.e. Albertus Magnus), who stands next to him. Thomas then offers to introduce him to the rest of the circle (some of whom are not specifically named in the text, only described): Gratian, the canon lawyer who authored the Decretum; Peter Lombard, the theologian who wrote The Sentences; King Solomon, supposed author of the Song of Songs in the Old Testament; Dionysius the Areopagite, the supposed author of a book entitled The Celestial Hierarchy; Orosius, whose History against the Pagans was a useful resource for St. Augustine; Boethius, the particularly noteworthy martyr and author of the famous and popular work The Consolation of Philosophy; Isidore of Seville, the encyclopedist who wrote the Etymologies; The Venerable Bede, historian of the early English church and scriptural exegete whose famous work is his Ecclesiastical History; Richard of St. Victor, a twelfth-century mystical theologian who authored On Contemplation; and Siger of Brabant, a university professor who was challenged for some heretical ideas, which he later retracted. Having been introduced, the members of the circle now start up their dancing and singing again.

Canto XI Summary

Dante now laments the way that most human beings waste their lives in pursuit of mortal cares (law, medicine, power, money, work, laziness), and rejoices that he is currently freed from such cares. After their dance, the figures are returned to their place in the circle, and Thomas Aquinas speaks again: the saint recognizes that Dante is still a little confused by what he said in the previous canto. To explain it, he will tell of the two angel-like guides chosen by God to serve the Church in its need: St. Francis and St. Dominic. Either one can make his point. Thomas, the Dominican friar, chooses to speak of Francis.

Francis was from the Italian town of Assisi, a place the poet associates with the rising sun (because Francis was born there). In his youth, Francis rejected his father’s desire for him to pursue a career in business, and instead chose to wed himself to Lady Poverty. Now this lady had been married once before—to Jesus, no less—but since then, she had not been wooed by anyone, although she had associated with a minor figure from Lucan’s ancient poem, known as Pharsalia: Amyclas the poor fisherman who once told Caesar that he had nothing to fear from robbers since he didn’t own anything worth stealing. Francis’s love for Lady Poverty attracted others, his early followers gathering with them to become like a family. His way of life was approved by Pope Innocent III, and later Pope Honorius III approved of a rule for the order of Franciscans. Eventually, Francis made his way to the court of the Sultan of Egypt to preach Christianity, to no avail. Back in Italy, Francis found himself carrying the very wounds of Christ in his hands and feet (the stigmata) for last two years of his life. On his deathbed, Francis urged his followers to embrace Lady Poverty the way he had. He refused any fancy funeral and made his way to heaven at his death.

This whole recitation had been sparked by Thomas’s reference to himself in the previous canto as a lamb in the holy flock established by St. Dominic, who leads him along a road where sheep are fattened if they do not stray. He now explains that he was referring in that phrase to the current crop of friars who have grown greedy, wandering about looking for better pastures and more milk, instead of simply becoming lambs in the flock of the Lord.

Canto XII Summary

As Thomas finishes his speech, the circle of flames (saints) that Dante has been observing starts its circular motion again and is joined by a second circle. It is like a double rainbow where the one reflects the other. Then the dancing circles stop again (in unison) and a new speaker draws Dante’s attention like a compass needle being drawn to point at the north star. This new speaker wants to echo or mirror the previous speech, showing how the two men, Francis and Dominic, were working in harmony to build up the Church.

Dominic, the holy athlete of God, was born in Calaroga, in Castile (Spain). His name itself shows his devotion to the Lord (Dominus in Latin), and he was destined, even prophesied, to become a laborer in the Lord’s garden. Dominic was thus wed to Faith, became a great teacher, and eventually made his way to the papal seat—the symbol of a divine office, even if some of its later occupants were degenerate. He asked the pope not for an office like bishop. or for the right to keep some part of the tithes for his own use instead of using it all for the poor, but simply for the right to preach against heretics. Having received the pope’s approval, Dominic went forth to learn the Faith and teach it among the heretical weeds of the world, a work which continues in Dante’s own day, the expansion of the Dominican order still watering the garden of the Lord.

Thus, Dominic and Francis formed the two wheels of the chariot of Holy Church, except that now in Dante’s day, the Franciscan wheel has become moldy and is moving backward. This isn’t to say, however, that all the Franciscans have become like the tares of the parable, but the rivalry between the Spiritual and Conventual Franciscans is not helping: Dante criticizes a certain Matteo d’Acquasparta for his too loose interpretation of the Rule of St. Francis and a certain Umbertino da Casale for his too rigid interpretation.

The speaker now identifies himself as St. Bonaventura (a one-time leader of the Franciscans), who proclaims that he was inspired by St. Thomas’s speech about St. Francis to the do the same for St. Dominic. He now identifies the other members of his circle of flames: Illuminato da Rieti and Augustine, two of Francis’s earliest disciples; Hugh of St. Victor, a famous mystic and theologian of the twelfth century; Peter “the Bookworm”, who became a chancellor of the University of Paris; Peter the Spaniard, who became Pope John XXI (r. 1276-77); Nathan, the prophet who chastised King David over Bathsheba; John Chrysostom, a famous theologian and preacher of the fourth century; Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury in the eleventh century; Donatus, a Roman scholar and grammarian whose work was at the core of a medieval education; Rabanus Maurus, Abbot of Fulda and one of the most learned men of the ninth century; and Joachim of Calabria, also known as Joachim of Fiora, a famous prophetic writer of the twelfth century.

Canto XIII Summary

Dante tries to describe the double ring of dancing lights as forming a new arrangement of constellations in the sky, consisting of a group of fifteen bright stars, then the seven stars of Ursa Major, and then two of the stars from Ursa Minor, all forming something that reminds of the crown of Ariadne. The stars are singing the praises of the trinity, until St. Thomas turns back to Dante to answer a second question of his: if Solomon is described as the ‘wisest’ man ever, how does this mesh with the idea that greatest of human beings must be those created directly by God (i.e. Adam and Jesus)?

Thomas answers him by drawing upon Aristotelian/Scholastic thought: all created beings, both mortal and immortal, are merely reflections of an idea of God’s. The angels, being closer to God, reflect more of his light than more material beings, who are further away and thus reflect less of the light. The reflected light of these material beings is brief and varied, since the ‘wax’ mold they were made from has imperfections: some trees, for example, are simply better at producing fruit than others. But if God made a material being directly, it would be perfect—so, yes, Adam and Jesus are more perfect than any other created material thing.

So, how could Solomon be described as being without equal? We must remember that he was a king and that he asked God specifically for practical kingly wisdom, so that he could be an excellent king. Thus, we should understand that statement as saying that Solomon was the wisest of kings and thus without equal among other kings. Let this be a lesson, too: we must take categories and clear distinctions into account as we think about things, not jumping to conclusions about things we don’t totally understand. Thomas cites earlier phosphors as example of such jumping to conclusions without all the information: Parmenides [of Elea], Melissus [of Samos], and Bryson [of Achaea]. And then some heretics: Sabellius and Arius, who misread scripture. And finally, a couple of examples of unschooled fools and typical folk: Bertha and Martin. Human beings should never feel too certain of their conclusions: good things can turn bad and bad things, good.

Canto XIV Summary

As Thomas stops speaking, Dante thinks of a bowl of water with waves moving inward and outward at the same time—it’s like the voices of Beatrice from the center and Thomas from the perimeter both hitting Dante. Beatrice tells the figures in the circles to speak to Dante about their eternal light: Dante wonders whether after these spirits are resurrected one would be able to look at them without hurting their eyes. The spirits rejoice and Dante is refreshed by their joy: they begin to sing a hymn about the Trinity.

Then, a humble voice (probably Solomon, but he is unnamed) answers his question: Their brightness is a reflection of their love for God, which of course is based on how well they can see and understand the grace they receive from God. Their light will increase at the Resurrection, taking on the light necessary to see God in all his glory. But at that time the organs of our bodies will also be strengthened so that we can endure all this brightness. The spirits in the two circles give an immediate ‘Amen’ to these words, echoing their strong desire to get their bodies back.

Then, things get even brighter and a third circle appears. Beatrice herself grows even more beautiful and the two of them progress to the next level in heaven, where Dante is surrounded by the planet’s red, fiery smile (this is Mars). Dante, making a kind of burnt offering in his soul, thanks God for this experience. God responds with the image of two beams of light in the form of the cross. In the image he also sees Christ. The cross is formed by lights that move back and forth and up and down in the shape, and it all emits a harmonious sound. Dante can’t make out the exact hymn, but he recognizes words like ‘arise’ and ‘conquer’ in the song. Dante is utterly enraptured by the sight and sound, and filled with more than love than he has heretofore experienced—even beyond his previously expressed love for Beatrice, for which slight he excuses himself.

Canto XV Summary

By God’s will, all the singing now stops—everyone is completely obedient in Heaven: It is thus fitting that those who ignore God’s will in their pursuit of worldly goals won’t experience endless bliss but instead endless grief; while these souls here can’t help but hearken to our prayers towards God. Then Dante sees a shooting star travel from the arm of cross to its foot.

This soul who now speaks is compared to Anchises, the father of Aeneas described in Virgil’s Aeneid, because of the love he expresses for his descendant. Amazed at what he’s hearing, he looks at Beatrice, who also fills him with wonder, because the smile in her eyes makes him think he has really died and gone to heaven. When the soul speaks again, Dante can’t even understand them because of their profundity—he just can’t speak in plain, mortal words.

Finally, the soul adjusts his aim down to Dante’s level, and the poet hears the soul thank God for the gift he has granted to Dante, his descendant. He rejoices, as if a dream has finally come true, in seeing Dante here in Paradise, something that he had read prophesied in the mind of God and made possible through Beatrice’s intervention. He notes that Dante has remained silent up to now, and explains that wile yes, the souls here can read his mind, he would like to hear Dante ask his questions in his own voice. With a quick glance at Beatrice, Dante explains his silence and his inability to express his thanks for the soul’s concern for him: unlike the denizens of Heaven, mortals don’t always have power equal to their will to act.

Now, Dante asks for the soul’s name. The soul responds that he is the root of the tree in which Dante is a bough. The founder of Dante’s family’s name, a man still traveling the first circle of Purgatory, was Dante’s great-grandfather and the son of this soul (i.e. This soul is Dante’s great-great-grandfather). The soul encourages Dante to keep praying to shorten his son’s time in Purgatory. This soul lived in Florence back in the good, old days, before all its current factional strife and worldly licentiousness had begun. He mentions some famous exemplars of the simple life and tastes of this earlier Florence.

It was then, now announcing himself by name, that Cacciaguida was born, along with his brothers Moronto and Eliseo. He married a foreign woman from whom Dante gets his name of Alighieri. Later, he followed Emperor Conrad on crusade to the Holy Land to fight the Muslims—he laments that the papacy of Dante’s day no longer calls crusades against these infidels. Cacciaguida died while on crusade, and thus earned a martyr’s passage into Paradise.

Canto XVI Summary

Dante now admits how much pride he took in such ancestry, and when he turns back to Cacciaguida, he uses an elevated form of ‘you’ to address him, and Beatrice gives a little cough to remind him to avoid the sin of pride. Being filled now with delight at meeting this revered ancestor, he inquires about his even more distant ancestors, about Cacciaguida’s own childhood, about the size of the city of Florence in his lifetime, and about the morality of its citizens in those days.

Cacciaguida supplies his birth year by describing a number of intersections of the planet Mars and the constellation Leo since the Annunciation of Christ’s birth, but besides indicating the spot in Florence where the family lived for generations, he declines to speak of his ancestry for the sake of humility. He informs Dante that in his day the city had only about a fifth of its current population, and he laments Florence’s expansion which he believes has brought in bad influences upon the Florentines. He then lists out a bunch of examples of the kinds of immoral people produced by Florentines mixing with their old-time neighbors. Florence did not benefit from its expansion.

The Florentines of his day, says Cacciaguida, were much better: He goes on to recite the names of several good examples of Florentine families acting more virtuously. Unfortunately, those same families have now fallen from God’s grace because of their pride. They use the church to fatten their wallets, and they use deception and manipulation to gain power. Cacciaguida traces Dante’s own sad situation in exile to the murder of Buondelmonte which was sparked by his decision to forsake his betrothed for an alliance with another family, all of which essentially introduced Guelph and Ghibelline politics into the city. Thus, while Cacciaguida lived in a Florence at peace with itself, Dante has had to suffer the back and forth factional strife currently plaguing the city, symbolized by the way the Guelphs reversed the colors of the Florentine flag (from a white lily on a red background to a red lily on a white background).

Canto XVII Summary

Comparing himself to Phaeton in search of answers about himself, Dante wants to ask something about himself, and Beatrice simply bids him be clear about what it is he wants to learn. Dante addresses Cacciaguida again and says that after hearing various prophecies directed at him while he traveled through Hell and Purgatory and now seeing how his ancestor, owing to his vantage point in Paradise, has some ability to know the future, he desperately wants to know about his immediate future on earth.

Cacciaguida responds to Dante with clear words, not cloudy sayings, explaining that God can know men’s destinies without hindering man’s free will: “You shall be forced to flee from Florence the way Hippolytus was forced to flee from Athens by his step-mother. Pope Boniface VIII is already putting into place the plans that will affect you thus. You will experience the worst of exile—leaving behind loved ones, being forced to depend on someone else for your daily maintenance, and being forced into the company of those who would betray you. But you shall find refuge with the noble Bartolommeo Scaliger in Verona, who will have his brother Cangrande at his court, a man who will be renowned for his martial prowess, although he is only nine right now. You can rely on this Cangrande to be a man of virtue and generosity. This is what all those earlier prophecies were hinting at, but do not be envious or disdainful towards your earthly enemies, who shall receive their just desserts while you shall gain eternal salvation.”

Dante responds, “I understand, but at least now I know what to expect and that will make it a little better. But I still worry about how I should describe my experience through Hell, Purgatory, and now Paradise. If I tell the truth about who and what I’ve seen, many people will be angry with me, and they may destroy my poetry and deprive me of my legacy.”

Cacciaguida comforts Dante by remarking how the relatives of those being punished may indeed be upset, but that should not keep him from telling the truth. In long run, the poem, if bitter at first, will do good to those who read it. He explains that this is why Dante has mainly been shown famous people in the afterlife, because they will function as more effective examples for his future readers.

Canto XVIII Summary

As Cacciaguida continues to rejoice in his encounter with Dante, the poet’s own feelings are mixed after hearing this prophecy. Beatrice now steps in and comforts him with promises of God’s help. Dante is so overwhelmed by her love that he cannot describe it, except to say that he understood that her love was a reflection of God’s love for him. She also draws attention to the fact that Cacciaguida bears a similar love for him and would speak some more to him.

Dante’s great-great-grandfather now introduces him to some of the famous denizens in this sphere of Mars, who are bright lights in the sign of the cross seen earlier. Dante meets the biblical heroes Joshua and Judas Maccabaeus; then he sees Charlemagne and Roland [of Song of Roland fame]. Some more famous warriors from poetry and history follow: William [of Orange, one of Charlemagne’s generals], Renouard [a pagan convert to Christianity in the Charlemagne epic], Duke Godfrey [of Bouillon, leader of the first crusade] and Robert Guiscard [a Norman adventurer in Southern Italy who was allied to the pope]. Then Cacciaguida rejoins the other members making the cross and Dante turns to Beatrice, now even more resplendent, for further instruction.

Like a man who sees his virtue increase each day through doing good deeds, Dante now notices that their spherical arc has grown larger—he finds himself now in the sphere of bright, white Jupiter. the souls here swarm about like birds and form the shapes of the letters D, I, L, etc. Dante now invokes a muse to help him describe what he sees, which is five times seven letters that spell out the opening words to the (apocryphal) biblical book The Wisdom of Solomon: DILIGITE IUSTITIAM QUI IUDICATIS TERRAM [“Love righteousness, ye that be judges of the earth” (KJV)]. The lights he sees first settle on the last M and then burst forth to form the shape of an eagle [an imperial symbol, representing justice]. For Dante it is a message that earthly justice originates in heaven.

Dante finishes by calling on God to look down on the source of the smoke which makes his light dimmer on earth and to strike against those causing it, i.e. those who buy and sell within the temple (i.e. the Church, which was originally built by the faith of martyrs and saints). He calls on the members of God’s host to pray for those led astray by these churchmen, since the war between good and evil is now fought not with swords but with excommunications and interdicts. He warns the pope, whose founders (Peter and Paul) died as martyrs to help build up the church but who still live eternally, that he has so set his heart on gold and silver that he does not even know Peter and Paul.

Canto XIX Summary

The eagle, made up of individual souls that shine like a ruby in the sun, now appears to speak to Dante: these souls are here because they were just and merciful in life—so just and merciful that they serve as referents even for the wicked. The message comes to Dante as one voice even though it originates in the voices of many. Dante then poses via his mind a long-gestated question to the eagle souls. The eagle explains that God’s wisdom is so vast that it cannot be held and understood by creatures he has made, including even his first creation, Lucifer. So, there’s no way that Dante will be able to understand God’s wisdom in the matter he is inquiring about.

Dante seeks to understand the nature of God’s justice as it is reflected towards the virtuous pagans in Limbo: Why is a man born in India, where the gospel of Jesus Christ is not known and all remain unbaptized, condemned to Hell even though he is a good man who does good things in life? The eagle turns it back on him: Who are you, a puny human with limited wisdom, to judge God in this matter?—a reference to Romans 9:20. Remember that God encompasses all goodness, and only what he decides can be said to be truly just. He is the one true source of justice. Just as Dante cannot really fathom the song coming forth from the eagle, so too is human understanding of God’s wisdom.

The fact is, explains the eagle, no one ever reached Paradise except they had faith in Jesus Christ. But note, also, that some who claim to have such a faith will find themselves in the end even farther removed from God than that good Indian. Even the Ethiopian or the Persian may be able to look down upon those false Christians. The eagle goes on to list a collection of such unjust Christian rulers: Albert of Austria, who invades and lays waste to Bohemia; Philip of France, who debases the coinage of his realm; Edward of England, who constantly wages war against his neighbor, Scotland; Ferdinand of Castile and Wenceslaus of Bohemia, who spend their lives in luxury and sloth; Charles of Apulia, who falsely claims to be king of Jerusalem and is ungenerous; Frederick of Sicily, who is greedy, cowardly, and utterly worthless; James of Majorca and James of Aragon, who disgrace their realms with wicked deeds; Denis of Portugal, Haakon of Norway, and Stephen Urosh of Serbia, who mints coins that he tries to pass off as Venetian ducats. He also mentions that Hungary will find happiness if it can stop being ruled by bad monarchs and that Navarre will find happiness if it stays apart from France. On the flip side, Cyprus is now unhappy because its ruler is just like the other bad ones he mentioned previously.

Canto XX Summary

Then, in just the way that the sun sets and the stars appear, the unified voices of the eagle symbol stop speaking and start singing individually. The holy thoughts of these souls express their love through this singing until they fall silent, and then Dante hears a murmuring sound like water flowing in a stream passing through the neck of the eagle like musical notes developed within a musical instrument. The message is then inscribed on Dante’s heart:

“Watch the eagle’s eye,” he is instructed, for there are found the highest-ranking spirits in this sphere. The pupil is King David, who sang psalms and toured with the ark of the covenant. And the closest to the beak of the five who make the eyebrow is Emperor Trajan, who consoled a widow who had lost her son (see Purgatorio X.73-93) and personally learned how much better it is to be in Paradise than in Limbo. Next to him is King Hezekiah, who prayed that his life might be lengthened and was granted it as part of God’s plan. Then comes Constantine, the Roman emperor who moved his capital to the Greek east, leaving the West to the pope, an unwitting action that had harmful results in the long run. Moving down the arc of the eyebrow, Dante now sees King William the Good of Sicily, whose former subjects now lament his passing as they live under bad monarchs, and thus he knows how Heaven loves a righteous king. The fifth in the arc is Ripheus, a just, if pagan, Trojan who understands God’s mysterious grace better than most, although no one besides God really knows how a pagan prince ended up in Paradise.

Dante rejoices like a lark in the image he has just witnessed, an image which reflects how things really are. But the souls here can see into Dante’s mind as if light were penetrating through glass, so his question about the lights he is seeing (making up the eye) emerges. The eagle notes that while Dante believes what he sees, he doesn’t understand their cause, just as someone might be able to name an object without understanding its true essence. The cause Dante’s wonder at the rules of heaven seemingly being broken (in the cases of Trajan and Ripheus—seemingly unbaptized pagans at their deaths) is that love and hope conquered God’s will because God willed love and hope to happen. Dante must understand, though, that Trajan and Ripheus actually did die as Christians, one before the birth of Christ and one after the death of Christ. In fact, Trajan had died and gone to Hell, but because of the hope expressed in prayer by Gregory the Great, God brought him back to life for a second chance, of which he availed himself. Ripheus was so filled with love for righteousness that he tried to preach it and was made aware of the possibility of Christian redemption, which he received by being baptized more than a thousand years before Christ by the three embodied theological virtues (Faith, Hope, and Chariity). Thus we see that God’s will can predestine even pagans to salvation, so human beings should be slow to judge one another’s worthiness of salvation and should always maintain hope, since no one but God knows for sure what their fate will be. Having learned this from the image he saw, Dante remembers how as the eagle’s voice had explained all this, the two lights in question (Trajan and Ripheus) had blinked in time with the words.

Canto XXI Summary

Dante turns to look at Beatrice, but she is not smiling. She explains that were she to smile now, it would overwhelm Dante’s human senses. Then she tells him that they have reached the seventh circle of heaven—Saturn—and that he must concentrate on other things than her. Now he beholds a huge golden ladder, with extremely bright objects (souls) descending it. Their movements remind him of a flock of blackbirds who all fly up in various directions in the morning to dry their wings in the sun, with only some coming back to their resting place to flock together again.

Then the closest of the lights grows brighter, which makes Dante think of Beatrice’s love for him. He remains silent, though, awaiting her signal to speak. Dante then asks the soul why it drew near to them, and why this sphere of heaven is not filled with the singing of its inhabitants like the other spheres. The soul replies that there is no singing for the same reason that Beatrice isn’t smiling (Dante’s sensory organs couldn’t handle it), and that he came to bid him welcome, acting according to the will of God that commands him.

“I understand that you do God’s bidding not your own, but why did God send you, and only you, specifically?” asks Dante. The soul now starts spinning around and growing even brighter. It responds that while he is filled with the light and joy of God whose will he can perceive, no one can fathom all the reasons why God wills what he does—a lesson that those still on earth would be wise to learn: if even the souls in Paradise cannot discern his reasons, then human beings immersed in the smoke of earth life never will.

So, Dante decides to simply ask the soul who he is. The soul starts describing his earthly life as a monk in Italy, which leads him to lament how that monastery has lost its way, no longer producing souls for heaven. He was known as Peter Damian, or Peter the Sinner. Then he was dragged out of that monastery to be a cardinal, an office which has gotten even worse by Dante’s day. He notes that when Peter and Paul came to Rome, they were thin and barefoot, but now when popes and cardinals travel, they need four attendants (one on each side) to prop up their fat bodies, and underneath their cloaks they sit upon not one horse but two. At this, a few more souls descend the ladder to surround Peter and shout out in support like thunder, which overwhelms Dante’s senses.

Canto XXII Summary

Like a frightened child, Dante turns to Beatrice for comfort, and she reminds him that they are in heaven, so even such a frightening sound must come from righteous zeal. She also chides him: if that sound frightened him, then he should understand why she didn’t smile at him before or why the souls here didn’t sing out. In these overwhelming noises is a reminder of God’s future vengeance on those corrupt popes described in the previous canto.

Beatrice now turns Dante’s attention to some of the famous souls in this sphere of heaven. He sees a hundred small orbs of light reflecting each other’s light, but he holds back from asking the question he most wants to ask. The largest of these ‘pearls’ approaches Dante and answers his unexpressed question, although he begins by noting that if Dante could only see the charity these souls have, he wouldn’t have been afraid to ask. The soul identifies himself as the man who founded the monastery of Monte Cassino (St. Benedict of Nursia). The other orbs of light are his fellow contemplatives: Macarius (an Egyptian monk) and Romualdus (founder of the Camaldolese order), both models of monastic stability.

Dante, having observed his love for him, now dares to ask the monk to reveal his post-mortal body. Benedict responds that he will indeed see Benedict in such a manner when he reaches the highest heaven, for there everyone receives all that they desire perfectly, and there where all in heaven actually reside—that is where the top of the ladder, hidden from Dante’s view in this sphere, reaches. This is the ladder Jacob saw in his dream (GEN 28: 10-17).

Benedict then laments that there are no monks in the world seeking to climb that ladder by following his rule for monks—the monasteries have become corrupt and full of waste, filled with greedy monks, and thus no longer fulfilling their original purpose. Any youth sent to such a place quickly succumbs to his mortal flesh. He notes that Peter started the office of the papacy without any money, Benedict founded his order of monks based solely on fasting and prayer, and Francis established his community of friars with simple humility. All three organizations have now gone wildly astray. Even so, were God to intervene to correct the abuses, it wouldn’t measure up to the miracles of the Red Sea and the Jordan River.

Benedict and his fellow souls now step back and disappear up like the swirling wind. Beatrice beckons Dante to follow that upward path, and he moves up this sort of stairway faster than anything he has ever experienced. Dante tells the reader how as the enter the heaven of the fixed stars, they find themselves in Gemini, under which sign he had been born and to which he attributes his poetic talents. They have now gotten so close to the abode of God that everything is crystal clear. Beatrice urges him to look down at the heavens he has already passed through, and from this new perspective, earth does appear small and insignificant to him—those who disdain this world for the next are right! This view also reveals to him the true sizes and speeds of the planets. Again, earth pales in comparison. He then turns his eyes towards Beatrice’s eyes.

Canto XXIII Summary

Beatrice appears to Dante like a morning bird looking for the sunrise, until all of a sudden Beatrice shouts with joy at the sight of the angels, bright with the light of the sun (Christ). Dante is overcome at the brightness and Beatrice teaches him that nothing can stop that power who mended the break between heaven and earth. Dante’s mind opens and he is transformed, such that he can now look at Beatrice in all her glory. Her smile is incomparable, the whole experience ineffable.

Dante notes that his poem is now transcending heights and the poet is feeling the weight of his task now. Beatrice seems to chide him because he is so transfixed by her face that he hasn’t noticed the garden blooming below the lights. He turns now to look, still with difficulty because of the brightness, and sees a rose that represents the Word of God become flesh, and lilies that guide people to God. He sees a field full of flowers as they are illuminated by Christ, whom Dante is still unable to look at directly, as the sun who has risen above casting its rays down.

He now focuses in on Mary, to whom he prays every morning and night. She is lit up like a star, whose brightness signals how much she exceeds the other saints in heaven, even as she had excelled those on earth during her mortal life. Then a torchlight encircles her, creating the image of a crown, accompanied by incomparable music that announces itself as the angelic love that worships her womb, where Christ once lived, until she rejoins Christ in the highest heaven. Mary’s name continues to reverberate even after the song ends.

As Mary ascends to rejoin Christ, Dante notes that he cannot follow her with his eyes beyond the Crystalline Sphere that separates the lower spheres from the Empyrean above. But the members of the garden are desirously reaching up, like a baby towards its mother, with their flame-like hands. Now the lilies sing the hymn ‘Queen of Heaven’ and revel in the souls saved on earth, like a treasure stored up in heaven, all guarded by he who holds the keys to heaven (i.e. Peter).

Canto XXIV Summary

Beatrice entreats these elect beings who enjoy the eternal feast at Christ’s table to give Dante a little taste of it now. They respond by forming into rings around poles, shining brightly and moving like the wheels inside a clock, their speed governed by their joy. There is one dancer that shines even brighter than the rest, and he circles around Beatrice three times, singing a song that can’t be repeated in words. The figure, who proves to be St. Peter himself, greets Beatrice joyfully, and she responds by asking the figure to test Dante on his faith and judge him. Dante, listening to this, begins to prepare to discourse on faith like a student.

“What is faith?” asks Peter. Dante looks at Beatrice for a moment, and she encourages him to speak forth. He begins with a prayer to Peter, addressed as the first centurion of God’s legion, to be able to speak his thoughts clearly. Then he quotes from St. Paul: “Faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen." (Hebrews 11:1) Peter follows this up by asking him why it is first a substance and secondly an evidence. Dante argues that in this realm of Paradiso faith is a real substance, while on earth it exists only as one believes and thus the only evidence we have of greater things unseen is our faith. Peter commends him by noting that if people on earth would learn the doctrines taught as well as Dante, then there would be an end to sophistry.

Peter then compares faith to a coin and asks if Dante has such in his purse.

Dante asserts that he does.

Peter then compares faith to a gem, upon which all the virtues rest, and asks Dante how he obtained such a gem.

Dante says that the Holy Ghost taught it to him through reading the Old and new Testaments.

Peter now quizzes him: Why do you accept the Bible to be the word of God?

Dante says he knows it’s true because the miracles described in it.

Peter counters: How do you know those miracles actually happened? Isn’t it circular to say that the miracles in the scriptures prove the scriptures that recount them to be true?

Dante argues back that since the world was clearly converted to Christianity through the miracles performed by the Apostles, men of humble birth, which are told in the scriptures, those scriptures must be true. At this point the congregation of souls breaks out in song.

Peter acknowledges that Dante has answered correctly and then proceeds to examine what exactly it is that he believes.

Dante, noting that Peter has had his great earthly faith confirmed by what he now sees in heaven, begins by asserting his belief in the one true God, in whom he has faith because of the writings of the prophets. He believes in the Trinity, three persons in one and one in three, which again he says is attested in the Bible. This is the beginning of my faith, he says.

Peter hugs Dante and blesses him, while singing and dancing around him in joy.

Canto XXV Summary

Dante now thinks about his current situation in life: he has devoted a great effort and made many sacrifices in composing this poem. He expects that if ever he could return to Florence [he is writing this in exile], he would be lauded with a laurel wreath. It was in Florence, of course, that he first developed the faith that Peter has just praised.

Now he sees another light approaching, one that Beatrice describes as the man who attracts pilgrims to Spain [i.e. he is St. James of Compostela]. Peter warmly welcomes James to their group like a dove greeting its mate with cooing. Together, they make such a brightness that Dante can’t quite bear it. Beatrice entreats James to teach Dante about Hope now, and James responds that it will be easy to help strengthen Dante’s hope, since he has made it thus far on his journey. James expresses the desire that Dante will be able to use his experience to strengthen the hope of others when he returns. Beatrice assures James that all this is the case and requests that he examine Dante’s hope.

Dante is again the eager student, and sets forth a basic definition of hope: “It is the sure expectation of heaven.” He then explains that he first gained hope by hearing one of David’s psalms, and then furthered it by reading in the Epistle of James. Having gained this understanding of hope, he has himself tried to spread it to his fellow man.

In response, James flashes brighter within his flame: “I love the virtue of hope, and so I must ask you, ‘What is it that you hope for?’”

Dante cites scripture and asserts that he wants the goal of every good Christian: Heaven; but he also hopes for a blessed life on earth. As soon as he says that, the souls break out singing the hymn Sperent in te [‘Let Them Hope in You’] with a response from all the circles of Heaven.

Now another very bright light approaches Peter and James. Beatrice identifies him as John, the disciple who once rested his head on Christ’s breast and to whom Christ from the cross entrusted the care of his mother. Dante tries but fails to squint enough to be able look at this bright light. (It’s like trying to look directly at the sun during a partial eclipse.) John reminds him that there is nothing to actually see. His body remains buried on earth—only Christ and Mary have thus far reunited their souls with their bodies here in Heaven. John enjoins Dante to repeat this doctrine when he returns.

The fiery dance now comes to an abrupt conclusion, as do the music-like notes of the words of Peter, James, and John. Dante then becomes troubled because he can’t see Beatrice, even though she’s right there with him.

Canto XXVI Summary

As Dante stands amazed at his blindness from the light he just saw, John’s voice whispers to him that now would be a good time to talk, to set forth the ultimate goal of his soul, and that his sight is only temporarily removed, since Beatrice has the power to restore his sight.

Dante now asserts that Love is what the scriptures have taught him to seek for. John replies that he must delve deeper and say how he came to this desire. Dante then says that he came to this understanding through both reading philosophy and from the divine authority that comes down from John himself. When one encounters goodness in the world, that kindles one’s love naturally—the better it is, the more love it instills. He cites a passage from scripture when God showed Moses all his goodness, and then refers to the beginning of John’s Gospel.

John now confirms that Dante, through both human reason and divine scripture, has indeed turned his highest love towards God. But, then he asks him if there is anything else drawing him towards God? Dante knows what answer John, whose symbol was the eagle, seeks. So, Dante tries again: “Everything comes together to make me love God—the world’s creation, my own existence, Christ’s atonement, indeed all that is good. All this has helped me fix my love, which was twisted, so that now it is properly directed.”

Dante’s response is rewarded with singing and the chanting of ‘Holy, holy, holy!’ Dante likens himself to one who is just being awoken by the rays of the sun, as Beatrice lifts the blindness from him. Now Dante notices a fourth bright light that Beatrice identifies as Father Adam. Dante is overwhelmed like a tree bouncing back into shape after being bowed down by the wind, which leads him to speak again, now begging Adam to speak to him what he already knows Dante wants to know.

Adam responds happily, telling Dante that he understands the latter’s wish to know how long it has been since Adam was first placed in the Garden of Eden, how long he lived therein, the real reason he was cast out, and the language that he spoke. Adam explains that he was cast out not so much for eating the fruit as for crossing a line that God had set. He says that he awaited the day he entered Heaven for 4,302 years, and that he lived 930 years on earth. The language that he spoke had died out before the days of Nimrod when they tried to build the Tower of Babel—Adam notes that nothing earthly lasts too long, and it doesn’t really matter what language you use; thus, God’s name when Adam lived was ‘I’ but it later became ‘El’. Adam then explains that he only lived about seven hours in the Garden before being cast out.

Canto XXVII Summary

The souls of heaven sing out praises to the trinity while Dante drinks it all in to the point of a kind of drunkenness, wherein he seems to see the universe smile. He rejoices. Now Peter shines more brightly than the other lights around Dante, and the choir of voices hushes. Peter warns Dante that he and the other lights are going to change color now as he speaks.

Peter then launches an attack on the current pope, calling him a usurper and asserting that the papal throne is viewed by him as currently unoccupied. The actions of the current ‘pope’ [Boniface VIII], turning Peter’s tomb into a sewer of blood, only make Satan pleased. Now Peter and the choir shine forth in a red likened to twilight clouds or the shame-filled blush of a woman. Peter reminds Dante that he and the early popes did not shed their blood so that the church could eventually get rich. It was not their intention, he says, that his successor should create factions within the church or build up papal armies that wage war against fellow Christians, or that his image should appear on seals used to facilitate fraud and bribery. The clergy have become rife with wolves in sheep’s clothing, he declares. Soon, Frenchmen will come to the papal court seeking to take advantage of their power, heralding the coming fall of the papacy. But, Peter continues, Providence, who once favored Scipio in battle in order to preserve the Roman Empire, is soon to act against all this. He enjoins Dante to be sure to declare these words when he returns to his earthly life.

The souls now drift up and away like reverse snowflakes, but Beatrice urges Dante to look downward. Dante can now see the earth from the Atlantic to the eastern Mediterranean, but he can’t help but turn his eyes back towards Beatrice, who radiantly smiles back at him. The power of her look draws Dante now into the next sphere, which is the fastest of heaven. She declares that here Dante stands at the beginning of the universe: the Crystalline Sphere, which exists in God’s mind, surrounded by light and love. All the other spheres take their motion and time relative to this fixed sphere.

Beatrice continues, now turning her attention to the sins of mankind: greed that sinks all mortals in its depths; the loss of innocence and loyalty after childhood; gluttony instead of fasting; failure to honor one’s mother, etc. Why is this? Because there is no true governor of mankind (i.e. a Roman emperor). But Beatrice prophesies that in the not too distant future one is soon to arrive and turn everything around.

Canto XXVIII Summary

Dante stares into Beatrice’s eyes and then turns around to see what is reflected there. He is struck by a bright light, that is surrounded by a rapidly, whirling ring of fire. The ring is in fact a series of nine concentric rings of fire, the inner rings moving swifter than the outer rings. That point of light represents the point on which all the universe hangs, and the innermost ring is the one closes to absolute Truth. But Dante is quick to point out that from an earthly, Aristotelian perspective, it’s the further one goes out from earth that one gets closer to divinity. Dante expresses the desire to understand how the model of the universe and its actual form can differ.

Beatrice explains: In the material world, somethings power determines its size, so the greater something is, the more blessed it is, and thus the larger in size it is. So, the sphere they have just entered is the largest because it is most blessed, being the one that loves and knows the most, and it governs the rest of the universe. In the model, however, the rings represent celestial Intelligences which govern the different ranks of angels, such that the angels with the greatest power are closest to God in the center, and correspond to the material world’s outer-most circle.

Dante experiences Beatrice’s explanation like a sky whose clouds have all been dissipated, leaving a clear sky through which a star can shine clearly. Then thousands of sparks start to go off among the rings of fire, and the angels break out into singing Hosanna to God at the center. Beatrice identifies the inner rings as the Seraphim and Cherubim, who move so quickly in the hope of acquiring as much of God’s likeness as they can. The next circle is call the Thrones of God, whose inhabitants also delight in acquiring the truest vision of truth that they can. Just seeing the truth creates greater and greater love in them. The next three circles sing constant hosannas to God to express their absolute happiness—these are the celestial orders of Dominions, Virtues, and Powers. Then comes the rings of Principalities and Archangels, followed lastly by the Angels. All these ranks of angels focus their attention up at God at the center, while their influence is felt below them. This ordering of the angelic orders follows the system of naming devised by Dionysius, although later Gregory the Great offered a slightly different order, of which he would have seen his error upon arriving in heaven. Beatrice then tells Dante that he shouldn’t be surprised that humanity has gained this knowledge about the angelic orders, since Dionysius got it from St. Paul who had seen it for himself.

Canto XXIX Summary

Beatrice is silent for a brief moment before answering Dante’s unstated questions. Why did God create the world? Not to increase his goodness, which would be impossible, but out of pure love to see more love. She starts at the very beginning, even before there was any time: form and matter, separately and together, appeared instantaneously in a threefold act of creation: the angels were created at the top of the universe as pure act, while pure potential was created down at the bottom, with a mixture of the two in between. Beatrice notes that when St. Jerome once said the angels were created long before the rest of the universe, he was mistaken, for as scripture and logic make clear, there would be no reason for the angels, pure act, to exist before there were heavens to move. Now Dante knows why, when, and how the angels were created.

She continues: While one band of angels, driven by humility and gladly accepting the role, and the grace, that God has given them, remained fixed on their task of moving the heavens; another band, led by the being Dante had seen at the bottom of Hell (i.e. Satan) who was driven by pride, fell down to disturb the lowest order of creation. Beatrice now says that with this understanding Dante can examine whatever he sees in this sphere, but she also notes that the schools on earth do not teach all this correctly and clearly, so she will explain a little further.

These angels have always kept their eyes fixed on God in all His perfection, so they have no need of any memory of past actions or objects, nor the need to find some other explanation of the universe. Humans, however, are not so fixed, so they dream up explanations they think are true (or worse, know they are not true but teach them anyway): philosophers get overtaken with a desire to show off their brilliance even while following a false path—but such faults are understood in Heaven, and not nearly as bad as neglecting the scriptures altogether or teaching false doctrine.

The world is full of preachers who spend more time declaring their wrong ideas than in simply teaching the Gospel. For example, one guy has the notion that there was a special lunar eclipse at Jerusalem at the time of Christ’s passion, but, in fact, the moon simply chose to hide itself away, such that it was dark everywhere in the world. Florence is full of such nonsense, and it is no acceptable excuse that they can’t see the error of their ways. After all, Christ had enjoined his disciples to go out and preach the truth that he gave them to the world, not this kind of nonsense. And they had done it, using the Gospel itself as their lance and shield, unlike the modern preacher who tells jokes and funny stories to their congregations that they might be more acceptable to them. If only the people could only see what lies behind these preachers! But then again, the people seek after any old promise offered to them by these preachers, regardless of whether it is true or not, and lose their money for nothing real in exchange.

Beatrice now comes back to her original topic. There are an infinite number of angels, and God’s love for each of them is reflected by them in an infinite number of ways, and yet God Himself remains only one.

Canto XXX Summary

Dante describes poetically the rising of the sun in the morning which causes the stars to disappear; in the same way, the point of light that he has been discussing now disappears. So, he turns towards Beatrice again and notices just how beautiful she is—his poetry cannot do justice to it, even though he has produced tons of it; even the memory of her smile makes him dumb. Giving up, Dante turns his attention to the end of his journey.

Beatrice announces that they have now traveled to the Heaven of true light which is full of intellect and love and joy. He will now see the inhabitants of Paradise, and is thus surrounded by an overpowering light, an expression of love. As this occurs, Dante arises beyond his mortal capacities to experience the true power of this light, greater than anyone can experience on earth. In fact everything is light here; there is a river of it. Beatrice is so pleased at Dante’s desire to understand what he is witnessing, but she reminds him that even now, he is not seeing the light in its fulness of glory—he couldn’t handle it. She urges him to drink from the river of light, and he thrusts his face into it.

Now, Dante can see both courts of Heaven in the flowers around the bank of the river, which has become a circle. He calls on God to give him the power to express in words what he is seeing. He describes a huge ray of light that emanates from God allowing people to see Him, and which powers the motion of the universe. Surrounding this ray of light is a rose containing the heavenly host of the souls who have returned to God. The host is vast, as Beatrice shows him, but its size cannot affect God’s glory, which is already perfect, in one way or another. Still, very few seats are left for the future righteous.

Beatrice draws his attention to one seat that has a crown above it—it is for Emperor Henry VIII, who will in the near future try to fix the problems in Italy. But, he shall be driven away and thwarted by the pope [Clement V], who shall one day find himself in the realm of Hell with the simoniacs, pushing Boniface VIII even further down into his hole.

Canto XXXI Summary

Dante looks further at the bright white rose filled with the soldiers of Christ who have accepted Christ as their bridegroom. Then he examines the other heavenly host, the angels, who fly about the throne of God singing his praises like bees buzzing about a flower. They are bright white with golden wings, flitting about between the light above and the flower but never damping its brightness. Dante remarks that if the barbarians who came to Rome stood in awe at its majesty, then imagine how Dante, a traveler from earth, from Florence, is experiencing what he finds in Heaven.

As Dante turns back to Beatrice, he finds an old man standing there instead. The man is filled with love and tenderness, but Dante just asks him where Beatrice is. The man informs him that Beatrice herself had called him from the rose to guide him at the very end of his journey to God Himself. Beatrice has taken her usual place within the rose—she looks as amazing as ever, of course. Dante gives her thanks for calling him forth on this journey through Hell, Purgatory, and then Paradise; to save his soul as it were.

The old man now grabs his attention again and makes it clear that he is Bernard of Clairvaux. Dante has the common human experience of thinking, “Is that really what you looked like?” But he is excited to meet a man who experienced an actual vision of God while still in the flesh. Bernard gently chides him: “You won’t experience the same joyful state I enjoy if you look at me instead of at Mary, the Queen of Heaven, who sits in the highest circle.” She is a bright spot, an oriflamme, surrounded by circling angels, whose beauty brings pleasure to everyone who looks upon her. Together Dante and Bernard just stare at Mary.

Canto XXXII Summary

As he contemplates Mary, Bernard teaches Dante: He points to Eve, who caused the need for a savior, sitting at the feet of Mary, who produced the savior. Then he notes Rachel sitting next to Beatrice; then Sarah and Rebekah, Judith and Ruth, the woman who grieved for the sin of her descendant David, all in their proper order and ranks. Below these are found all the Hebrew women who looked forward to Christ with faith: the ranks are in fact divided, with a line drawn directly down from Mary, between those who looked forward and those who looked back to Christ. The latter side still has some empty spaces though.

On the opposite side of the rose, the same thing happens, with the line drawn down from John the Baptist, through St. Francis, St. Benedict, St. Augustine, and others. Bernard notes God’s foresight, for at the end of times, both sides of the line will be perfectly filled. In the bottom half, though, are found those souls whose salvation was ultimately due to the merits of others: that is, children who died before they reached an age when they could exercise their free will. Bernard notes Dante’s confusion, so he explains: Remember, nothing here has happened by chance; all is done according to God’s eternal law. He knows the minds of these innocents and has granted his grace accordingly, an act beyond human comprehension. Such things are seen in how the hair colors of Jacob and Esau marked the grace they received from God. So, these ancient innocent children were saved by the faith of their parents. Following Abraham, it was circumcision for male children that became a marker of their potential salvation. After Christ’s coming, however, it was baptism that was required; otherwise they would be sent below.

Bernard now commands Dante to look upon Mary in preparation for looking upon Christ Himself. She is surrounded by angels, and he can see no other face that is closer in likeness to God’s. The whole court breaks out in singing “Ave Maria, gratia plena”. Everyone’s faces then become more luminous with joy. Then Dante asks Bernard who the angel is that gazes upon Mary in flame-like love. It is Gabriel, the messenger who announced to her that she would be the mother of God. Then he begins to point out the real aristocrats of this kingdom: To Mary’s left sits Adam; to her right, Peter. And next to him is John, while next to Adam is Moses. Across from Peter is Anna, the mother of Mary, and opposite Adam is Lucy, the one who urged Beatrice to act to save Dante.

Now, he says, it is time to gaze upon God, or Primal Love, and come to know His brilliance as much as is possible. It is through prayer that Dante may be able to gain the grace necessary to advance in this direction, grace that must come from Mary. Bernard instructs Dante to follow his lead, and then he begins his prayer….

Canto XXXIII Summary

Bernard prays to the Virgin Mary, mother of God. She is a beacon of charity and hope, one to whom a man can turn for grace. Bernard appeals to Mary on Dante’s behalf, that he might rise to highest of heights. The saint also asks that Dante be able to remember what he has seen in order to create his account of his journey through Hell up to Heaven. Mary responds by turning her gaze to the eternal Light, which is too bright for any mortal eyes. Dante’s soul desires above all to reach this light, so he turns his vision upward and his sight was made purer to be able to see further and further into the Light. His speech fails him, but his sight continues.

Now, as Dante composes his poem, he reflects on how difficult it is to express what he experienced, like someone freshly awake trying to remember their dream. He appeals for God to restore his memory of that experience and to grant his tongue the power to express it. Dante recalls how he felt that should he look away from the Light, he would have perished. So, he continued his effort more boldly until he reached the infinite Goodness that is God. It was to experience all the love of the universe combined into one whole, like the pages of a book. Even now, Dante’s own joy increases at just a thought of it. His whole soul desired God, the object of his own will, at that moment. Dante reflects that his words, like an infant’s, just can’t do justice now to what he saw and felt then.

The Light he gazed at didn’t itself change, but Dante’s perception of it did change as he stared at it. He distinguished three interconnected circles of colored light. The first and second reflect each other while the third is like fire, breathed out by the first two. Then Dante thinks he sees himself drawn in the same color as the circle itself. Dante can’t figure out how he can actually see it, until a bolt of lightning makes it click in his mind. At that moment, Dante loses his power to see these images, but his will and desire have now become one, turning with the same divine Love that turns the sun and the stars.