Research
Does increasing the availability of a nutritious food produced by a SME increase its consumption? Evidence from a field experiment in Kenya (with Mywish Maredia, Maria Porter, Eduardo Nakasone, David L. Ortega., and Vincenzina Caputo) - Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy 46(2): 414-434.
Many development programs rely on the idea that increasing profitability of small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) could increase availability of nutritious foods among low-income consumers. We designed a Randomized Controlled Trial in which we made a specific nutritious product produced by an SME exhaustively available in low-income local markets. We find that compared to control markets, consumers in treated markets purchased and consumed more of this product and less of competing brands with added sugar and fat. However, overall consumption for the product category was not increased and there was no change in the consumption of other related but potentially less nutritious foods. Our findings suggest the need for alternative policies to increase consumption of nutritious foods.
A mixed methods assessment of technical and financial assistance to small- and medium-sized enterprises in Kenya´s food sector (with Maria Porter, Mywish Maredia, Andrew Jones, and David Tschirley) - Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy 46(2): 435-455.
We study the impacts of a program in Kenya that provided consulting services and major capital infusions to small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in the food sector. This technical and financial assistance was provided on a competitive basis. We exploit a quasi-experimental design that matches treated firms with comparable firms that applied for the same support but were just short of scoring sufficient points to receive this support. This analysis is complemented by in-depth qualitative interviews. We find the program helped SMEs launch new products and increased numbers of employees in the short term. Also, interviewees in the qualitative survey described higher sales and profits resulting from the major capital infusions they received.
Food Systems Interventions for Nutrition: Lessons from 6 Program Evaluations in Africa and South Asia (with L. Neufeld, S. Nordhagen, J. Leroy , N. Aberman, I. Barnett, E. Djimeu, A. Webb Girard, W. Gonzalez, C. Levin, M. Mbuya, C. Dhillon, D. Prescott, M. Smith, and D. Tschirley). Journal of Nutrition, forthcoming.
Although there is growing global momentum behind food systems strategies to improve planetary and human health—including nutrition—there is limited evidence of what types of food systems interventions work. Evaluating these types of interventions is challenging due to their complex and dynamic nature and lack of fit with standard evaluation methods. In this article, we draw on a portfolio of 6 evaluations of food systems interventions in Africa and South Asia that were intended to improve nutrition. We identify key methodological challenges and formulate recommendations to improve the quality of such studies. We highlight 5 challenges: a lack of evidence base to justify the intervention, the dynamic and multifaceted nature of the interventions, addressing attribution, collecting or accessing accurate and timely data, and defining and measuring appropriate outcomes. In addition to more specific guidance, we identify 6 cross-cutting recommendations, including a need to use multiple and diverse methods and flexible designs. We also note that these evaluation challenges present opportunities to develop new methods and highlight several specific needs in this space.
Using Novel Multi-Method Evaluation Approaches to Understand Complex Food System Interventions: Insights from a Supply Chain Intervention Intended to Improve Nutrition (with Mywish K. Maredia, Maria Porter, Stella Nordhagen, Vincenzina Caputo, Eric W. Djimeu, Andrew D. Jones, Mduduzi N.N. Mbuya, David L. Ortega, Djeinam Toure, and David Tschirley). Current Developments in Nutrition, forthcoming.
Background: A ‘food systems’ approach to improve diet quality by intervening within areas such as food supply chains is gaining prominence. However, evidence of such interventions’ impact, and understanding of appropriate methods to evaluate them, is lacking.
Objective: We present an impact evaluation of an intervention that aimed to increase consumption of nutritious foods by supporting food-producing firms in Kenya. In doing so, we demonstrate how multiple methods, including those from other disciplines, can be used to evaluate a complex food systems intervention.
Methods: Four methods focused on food-producing firms and their management, including a survey of intervention participants (n=83 individuals), a ‘lab-in-the-field’ experiment (n=83 individuals), baseline/endline data on firm performance (n=71 firms), and semi-structured interviews (n=19 firms). Three methods focused on consumers in neighborhoods targeted by a supported firm: a randomized field experiment tested effects of making a supported product exhaustively available on consumers’ purchases and consumption (n=1,295 consumers); three discrete choice experiments (n=1,295 consumers) tested factors influencing consumers’ willingness to pay for foods with relevant characteristics.
Results: Among firms, we saw suggestive evidence of increased networking and business relationships, while lab-in-the-field experiments indicated the intervention might foster cooperation among participants. Qualitative interviews suggested that the intervention enabled firms to increase production, improve management, increase revenues, and lower costs. Baseline/endline data confirmed a positive effect only on the launch of new products and hiring workers. In the field experiment, consumption of the supported product increased in areas where it was made available relative to a control group, but this did not increase overall consumption of the food type or dietary diversity.
Conclusions: Results showed positive signs of the intervention improving firm-level outcomes but limited impact on consumers’ diet quality. The evaluation also demonstrates how diverse methods can be used to evaluate complex interventions.
Does Gender and Sexual Diversity Lead to Greater Violence in Schools? (with Veronica Frisancho and Alejandro Herrera), R&R - Labour Economics
Diversity in gender identity and sexual orientation challenges traditional institutions, social norms, and gendered stereotypes. Increased representation of LGBTQ+ population leads to increase interactions with heterosexual and/or cisgender individuals, with consequences on perceived threats and conflict levels across groups. Using data from 95 middle and high schools in Uruguay, we exploit plausibly exogenous variation in the share of LGBTQ+ students across classrooms and estimate its impact on the prevalence of psychological, physical, and sexual violence in schools. On average, we find support for the integrated threat theory: there is a strong link between the share of LGBTQ+ students in the classroom and the prevalence of violence, particularly in the case of psychological and sexual violence. The effect of sexual and gender diversity on victimization is stronger among female students.
When the Temperature Drops, Perceptions Worsen: Effects of Extreme Cold on Perceptions of Government and Civic Participation in the Peruvian Highlands (with Leah Lakdawala and Judhajit Chakraborty, Work in Progress)
Perceptions of government and political institutions can have important effects on a wide range of outcomes, such as compliance with laws and demand for public goods. We examine how extreme weather affects individuals' belief of how well democracy functions in Peru. We construct a unique dataset containing spatially and temporally specific cold temperature shocks and find that extreme cold reduces positive perceptions of democracy. This translates into reductions in civic engagement in formal democratic institutions (as measured by participation in national elections) but increased involvement in local associations. We provide evidence that these effects work through several mechanisms: decreased income, assets, and expenditure as well as increased incidence of illness and some types of crime. Finally, we find that the negative effects of extreme cold are mitigated by government provision of goods and services, namely, social programs, public hospitals, and police resources.
Frosty Climate, Icy Relationships: Frosts and Intimate Partner Violence in Rural Peru (with Katie Bollman, Judhajit Chakraborty, and Leah Lakdawala, Work in Progress)
Violence against women --- in particular, Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) --- is a major health concern for women across the world. We study the impact of extreme cold on IPV among Peruvian women. Using a dataset that matches women to weather exposure, we find that overall, frost shocks increase IPV: 10 degree hours below -9° C increases the probability of experiencing domestic violence by 0.5 percentage points. These effects are larger for more extreme temperature thresholds. We provide evidence that frosts impact IPV through two main channels. First, extreme cold yields adverse consequences for income, which in turn affects IPV. Second, extreme cold limits time spent outside of the household, potentially increasing exposure of women to violent partners. To our knowledge, we are the first to measure relative significance of these two channels by using variation in frost timing to distinguish shocks that affect IPV through changes in income from those that act through time spent indoors. We find that the effect of frosts on IPV is mostly driven by frosts that occur during the growing season, when 10 degree hours below -9° C increase the probability of experiencing IPV by 1.5 percentage points. In contrast, we find that non-growing season frosts have no statistically significant effects on IPV.
Agricultural Extension through Information Technologies in Schools: Do the Cobbler's Parents go Barefoot? (with Maximo Torero, Work in Progress)
There is increasing interest to boost agricultural extension programs through Information Technologies (ITs). ITs can be a cost-effective alternative to traditional methods: they do not require extension agents to physically visit farms, they can increase accountability of the information provided, and they can disseminate information to remote locations that can otherwise be difficult to reach. However, low levels of farmers’ knowledge on how to use computers (or other sophisticated methods of ITs) can prevent successful implementation of these practices. In this study, we analyze an alternative method to provide agricultural advice in rural areas: rather than delivering this information directly to farmers, we investigate the possibility of providing it to their children through ITs.
For this purpose, we conducted a randomized controlled trial with students in one high school in northern rural Peru. Students were randomly assigned to watch videos (in the computer lab) explaining simple techniques tailored to prevent or solve the most important agricultural problems in this area. Most of these children help their parents with agricultural tasks, and can potentially convey this information to affect farm management. Within this setting, we will test if the parents’ of children who receive agricultural advice adopt the agricultural practices described by the videos and increase their agricultural productivity. The final round of this project survey has been collected. We are in the process of analyzing this data.
Trust, Risk, and Institutions: Experimental Evidence on Promoting Investment in a Community of Firms in Kenya (with Salim Nuhu, Maria Porter and Mywish Maredia) - R&R Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics
We test whether personal relationships amongst firms can foster trust-based investments as a mechanism to overcome risky business environments and weak institutions. In partnership with a community of small and medium scale enterprises (SMEs) in Kenya, we implemented trust-based investment games in a framed field experiment. Among active association members, investments made non-anonymously with a fellow member of the association are higher compared to investments made anonymously. However, association-based networking can only partially offset an adverse business environment. Contract enforcement increases mutual investment levels, while lower returns due to added risk reduce investment. Our findings suggest that while personal relationships within an association are important in trust-based investments, such informal mechanisms to encourage investment may only partially compensate for possible weak institutional capacity and outside contract enforcement.
Impact of Internet Access on Student Learning in Peruvian Schools (with Kevin Kho and Leah Lakdawala) - American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 15(4): 222-254
As developing countries increasingly look to Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) to aid learning in resource-strapped classrooms, the Internet in particular may have an important role as a pedagogical tool. We investigate the impacts on pupil achievement of school-based internet access in Peruvian primary schools, studying the sample of all schools that gained internet connections during 2007-2014. We use an event study approach and a trend break specification to exploit variation in the timing of internet roll-out across schools. We analyze the dynamic effects of internet access on math and reading scores up to 6 years after installation. Controlling for school and year fixed effects, internet access appears to produce a positive impact on school-average standardized math scores, which grows over time. The effect is moderate in magnitude (about 0.02 standard deviations per year, peaking at 0.16 standard deviations by year 5) and statistically significant at conventional levels only after at least 1 year post installation. Consistent with the idea that new technologies need an adaptation period, this dynamic suggests the need for an extended time frame for the effects of school-based internet on learning to materialize. We show that these results are not driven by alternative explanations, such as score trends prior to internet access, changes in other school inputs, endogenous sorting of students across schools with internet, and changes in the composition of our panel. Observed gains in reading scores are smaller and insignificant in our main analysis. We explore two potential mechanisms with respect to our main result: the role of complementary investments to internet access (such as computer teachers and hardware) and increased individualized instruction.
The Power of Information: The ICT Revolution in Agricultural Development (with Maximo Torero and Bart Minten). Annual Review of Resource Economics, Vol 6.
We review the state of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and its impact on agricultural development in developing countries, documenting the rapid changes that have taken place over the last decade. Although there is still a wide gap in access between rural and urban areas, the spread of mobile phones in rural areas has led to important changes in the agricultural sector. We find that access to mobile phones has generally improved agricultural market performance at the macro level; impacts at the micro level are mixed. There is also still limited evidence regarding the impact of market information systems (MIS) delivered through mobile phones on farm prices. Similarly, the rollout of extension programs though ICTs is still in an early stage, and little research is available regarding such programs’ impacts.
[Appendix: List of ICT projects in Agriculture]
Iron Deficiency and Schooling Attainment in Peru (with Alberto Chong, Isabelle Cohen, Erica Field and Maximo Torero) - American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, Vol 8(4): 222-255
A key question in development economics is whether nutritional deficiencies generate intergenerational poverty traps by reducing the earnings potential of children born into poverty. To assess the causal influence on human capital of one of the most widespread micronutrient deficiencies, supplemental iron pills were made available at a local health center in rural Peru and adolescents were encouraged to take them up via classroom media messages. Results from school administrative records provide novel evidence that reducing iron deficiency results almost immediately in a large and significant improvement in school performance. For anemic students, an average of 10 100mg iron pills over three months improves average test scores by 0.5 standard deviations and increases the likelihood of grade progression by 11%. Supplementation also raises anemic students’ aspirations for the future. Both results indicate that cognitive deficits from IDA contribute to a nutrition-based poverty trap. Our findings also demonstrate that, with low-cost outreach efforts in schools, supplementation programs offered through a public clinic can be both affordable and effective in reducing rates of adolescent IDA.
A Text Message Away: A Text Message Away: ICTs as a Tool to Improve Food Security (with Maximo Torero) - Agricultural Economics, Vol. 47(S1): 49-59.
The growing use of ICTs around the world, particularly cellular phone technology, provides a significant development opportunity. Under certain situations, ICTs can improve rural households’ agricultural production, farm profitability, job opportunities, adoption of healthier practices, and risk management. All these effects have the potential to increase well being and food security in rural areas of developing countries. Several challenges to effectively scaling up the use of ICTs for development remain, however. Taking advantage of the opportunities provided by ICTs depends on increased connectivity of marginalized population groups, the content and usefulness of the information provided through ICTs, and the capacity of households in rural areas to understand and act on the information that they receive.. We need innovative ways to bring together the public and private sectors to ensure that the three Cs (connectivity, content, and capacity) are addressed as a whole.
The Role of Price Information in Agricultural Markets: Evidence from Rural Peru
This paper presents new experimental evidence on the role of price information on farmers' marketing outcomes. I set up a Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) in the central highlands of Peru. A group of farmers in randomly selected villages was provided with mobile phones, through which they received detailed price information for the most relevant crops in six regional markets. I find that those provided with the information received higher prices for their products. This effect was larger for perishable crops and for more risk-averse households. Information also made farmer more likely to sell their crops. These results were not driven by other mobile phone benefits as the phones distributed to the farmers were restricted to only receive the price SMS during the period of the intervention. They are not driven by production decisions either because the intervention took place after planting decisions had already been made. Finally, I also investigate the possibility of information spillovers by examining marketing outcomes of households who did not receive the information but lived in villages where others did. I do not find any significant effects among households in this group.
Soap Operas for Female Micro Entrepreneur Training (with Maximo Torero) - In: In: Chong, A. and M. Yañez-Pagans (editors), “Information Technologies and Economic Development in Latin America”, London, UK and New York, NY, Anthem Press.
This paper analyzes the impact of the Strengthening Women Entrepreneurship in Peru (SWEP) program. SWEP trained female micro entrepreneurs in business management practices (such as accounting and marketing). The training, which was provided in 4- to 5-hour sessions, used soap operas and practical exercises specifically designed for the program. A field experiment was conducted among a group of micro entrepreneurs based in two Peruvian cities (Lima and Piura) to investigate whether SWEP had a positive impact on its beneficiaries. The results show that the program positively affected the adoption of business practices taught by the program. In particular, those who received the training were 4 to 6 percentage points more likely to assign themselves a fixed salary (rather than taking cash from their businesses based on personal needs) and 6 to 11 percentage points more likely to keep better records of potential business contacts. Some positive impacts were found on the adoption of bookkeeping practices (4 to 6 percentage points), although this result is not significant across all of the specifications. Although these changes in adoption rates were large compared with their baseline levels, they were rather small in absolute terms. Therefore, the study did not find any impact on average business performance, household expenditures, or women’s empowerment in the household. Qualitative information suggests that micro entrepreneurs were satisfied with the training, but considered that many of the practices taught by the program were difficult to follow because of time constraints.
The Impact of Land Titling on Labor Allocation: Evidence from Rural Peru
This paper analyzes the relationship between land property rights and household labor allocation. It posits that land titling has two opposite effects on labor decisions. On one hand, enhancement of tenure security should lead to reductions in guarding requirements and to increases in the hours that households spend off their land (`Field' effect). On the other hand, decreases in risk of expropriation should lead to higher parcel-attached investments and to higher productivity of labor related to their land (`productivity' effect). To investigate this hypothesis, a massive land titling program in rural Peru (The Special Program of Rural Titling - PETT), is analyzed. Propensity score matching estimations suggest that the `productivity' effect is much larger than the `Field' effect, leading to overall increases in household labor allocation to agricultural self-employed activities. These estimations are robust to different specifications within a cross section and a four-round panel dataset.
[Appendix: Land Titling - Appendix]
Provision of Public Services and Welfare of the Poor: Learning from an Incomplete Electricity Privatization Process in Rural Peru (with Lorena Alcazar and Maximo Torero), in: A. Chong (Ed.), Privatization for the Public Good?: Welfare Effects of Private Intervention in Latin America (pp. 163-203), Cambridge, MA: David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies, Harvard University.
The incomplete privatization of the electric sector in Peru provides a unique scenario for evaluating the impact of public versus private provision. The results in this paper suggest that management of electricity firms by the private sector leads to a significant improvement in the quality of the provision of electricity. These improvements in quality and supply of electricity provision yield some efficiency gains in terms of the time allocation of the working labor force that can be directly linked to the use of electricity. Rural households under private provision of electricity had more opportunities to work in non-farm activities, and as a result, the share of time in non-farm activities increased, indicating both a substitution effect and a potential price effect through higher non-farm wages. The substitution effect implies a reduction of hours spent on farm activities in favor of non-farm activities, and the price effect implies that households will receive higher salaries and therefore will need to work fewer hours in total. As a result, the increase in time spent on non-farm activities was accompanied by a reduction of hours spent on farm activities and an increase in hours spent on leisure.