Chapter_03_1

The Presentation Layer

The Presentation layer has three primary functions:

Coding and conversion of Application layer data to ensure that data from the source device can be interpreted by the appropriate application on the destination device.

Compression of the data in a manner that can be decompressed by the destination device.

Encryption of the data for transmission and the decryption of data upon receipt by the destination.

The Session Layer

As the name of the Session layer implies, functions at this layer create and maintain dialogs between source and destination applications. The Session layer handles the exchange of information to initiate dialogs, keep them active, and to restart sessions that are disrupted or idle for a long period of time.

Most applications, like web browsers or e-mail clients, incorporate functionality of the OSI layers 5, 6 and 7.

• Domain Name Service Protocol (DNS) is used to resolve Internet names to IP addresses.
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used to transfer files that make up the Web pages of the World Wide Web.
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used for the transfer of mail messages and attachments.
• Telnet, a terminal emulation protocol, is used to provide remote access to servers and networking devices.
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for interactive file transfer between systems.

The Client/Server model

In the client/server model, the device requesting the information is called a client and the device responding to the request is called a server. Client and server processes are considered to be in the Application layer. The client begins the exchange by requesting data from the server, which responds by sending one or more streams of data to the client. Application layer protocols describe the format of the requests and responses between clients and servers. In addition to the actual data transfer, this exchange may also require control information, such as user authentication and the identification of a data file to be transferred.

One example of a client/server network is a corporate environment where employees use a company e-mail server to send, receive and store e-mail. The e-mail client on an employee computer issues a request to the e-mail server for any unread mail. The server responds by sending the requested e-mail to the client.

Although data is typically described as flowing from the server to the client, some data always flows from the client to the server. Data flow may be equal in both directions, or may even be greater in the direction going from the client to the server. For example, a client may transfer a file to the server for storage purposes. Data transfer from a client to a server is referred to as an upload and data from a server to a client as a download.

Peer-to-Peer Networks

In a peer-to-peer network, two or more computers are connected via a network and can share resources (such as printers and files) without having a dedicated server. Every connected end device (known as a peer) can function as either a server or a client. One computer might assume the role of server for one transaction while simultaneously serving as a client for another. The roles of client and server are set on a per request basis.

Port numbers identify applications and Application layer services that are the source and destination of data. Server programs generally use predefined port numbers that are commonly known by clients. As we examine the different TCP/IP Application layer protocols and services, we will be referring to the TCP and UDP port numbers normally associated with these services. Some of these services are:

• Domain Name System (DNS) - TCP/UDP Port 53
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) - TCP Port 80
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - TCP Port 25
• Post Office Protocol (POP) - UDP Port 110
• Telnet - TCP Port 23
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol - UDP Port 67
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP) - TCP Ports 20 and 21

DNS

In data networks, devices are labeled with numeric IP addresses, so that they can participate in sending and receiving messages over the network. However, most people have a hard time remembering this numeric address. Hence, domain names were created to convert the numeric address into a simple, recognizable name.

On the Internet these domain names, such as www.cisco.com , are much easier for people to remember than 198.132.219.25, which is the actual numeric address for this server. Also, if Cisco decides to change the numeric address, it is transparent to the user, since the domain name will remain www.cisco.com . The new address will simply be linked to the existing domain name and connectivity is maintained. When networks were small, it was a simple task to maintain the mapping between domain names and the addresses they represented. However, as networks began to grow and the number of devices increased, this manual system became unworkable.

The Domain Name System (DNS) was created for domain name to address resolution for these networks. DNS uses a distributed set of servers to resolve the names associated with these numbered addresses.

The DNS protocol defines an automated service that matches resource names with the required numeric network address. It includes the format for queries, responses, and data formats. DNS protocol communications use a single format called a message. This message format is used for all types of client queries and server responses, error messages, and the transfer of resource record information between servers.

E-mail Server Processes - MTA and MDA

The e-mail server operates two separate processes:

Mail Transfer Agent (MTA)

Mail Delivery Agent (MDA)

The Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) process is used to forward e-mail. As shown in the figure, the MTA receives messages from the MUA or from another MTA on another e-mail server. Based on the message header, it determines how a message has to be forwarded to reach its destination. If the mail is addressed to a user whose mailbox is on the local server, the mail is passed to the MDA. If the mail is for a user not on the local server, the MTA routes the e-mail to the MTA on the appropriate server.

The Dynamic Host Confirmation Protocol (DHCP) service enables devices on a network to obtain IP addresses and other information from a DHCP server. This service automates the assignment of IP addresses, subnet masks, gateway and other IP networking parameters.

DHCP allows a host to obtain an IP address dynamically when it connects to the network. The DHCP server is contacted and an address requested. The DHCP server chooses an address from a configured range of addresses called a pool and assigns ("leases") it to the host for a set period.

Telnet was developed to meet that need. Telnet dates back to the early 1970s and is among the oldest of the Application layer protocols and services in the TCP/IP suite. Telnet provides a standard method of emulating text-based terminal devices over the data network. Both the protocol itself and the client software that implements the protocol are commonly referred to as Telnet.