The term "Middle Ages" is not a very precise term, though historians usually designate the time between the fall of the Roman Empire and the early 16th century as falling under this period. The High Middle Ages is characterised by urbanisation: people who used to dwell in the farms moved to towns, which served as centres of trade. The period is characterised by great strides in human endeavours.
CLUNY, CITEAUX, AND CLAIRVAUX
The monastery of CLUNY was founded in 910 by William the Pious, Duke of Aquitaine. William placed the monastery directly under papal control to regulate the control of monastery property. Though it followed the Benedictine spirit, Cluny brought a change in administrative style. Benedictine monasteries are usually self-governing, but the monasteries that grew out of Cluny were dependent on her. The heads of these monasteries (called "priories") were nominated by the abbot of Cluny. Monks from other monasteries had to spend some years in Cluny. By the 15th century, some 800 houses owed allegiance to Cluny. [Click here for a video about the Abbey at Cluny. It had the largest monastery church in Christendom.]
Some monks from Cluny became outstanding leaders in the Church: Pope Gregory VII, Urban II, Paschal II. The spread of these monasteries brought wealth and property. Consequently, the monks settled into a life of ease and comfort.
This led some monks to leave Cluny to seek a more simple life. They founded a monastery in CITEAUX in 1098. The Cistercians profess simplicity, austerity, and poverty. They chose to live in remote areas, and worked the fields to support themselves. [Click here for a tour of the Abbey of Citeaux.]
Saint Bernard (1090-1153) was attracted by Citeaux and brought a group of friends with him. In 1113, he founded a second monastery at CLAIRVAUX. Soon other Cistercian monasteries were established all over Europe. Their way of life became a model for contemplative communities.
CRUSADES (1095-1290)
Christians made pilgrimages to the Holy Land in order to see and experience the land where Jesus lived. They did this in spite of the difficulties of travelling. The Arab Moslems had allowed Christian pilgrims to visit the places related to the life of Christ. But once the SeIjuk Turks became the dominant Moslem power, they closed off the Holy Land. After the Moslems take control of the Holy Land, however, Christians could not make the pilgrimage peacefully. The Moslems had destroyed the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. Furthermore, they were persecuting the Christians residing in Palestine, and those who went there on pilgrimage. The Byzantine emperor asked Pope Blessed Urban II (1088-1099) to help him free the Holy Land from the Moslems. Thus the Crusades were preached (those who fought in the crusade wore big crosses on their uniforms and shields--thence the name "crusade").
Anne Carroll (The Crusades) explains:
It is important to understand that the Crusades were a just war. The Church is frequently attacked on the question of the Crusades, sometimes on the grounds that the Christian nations of Europe were the aggressors and encouraged to be so by the Popes, sometimes on the grounds that this kind of war was inappropriate for Christians to fight, and sometimes on the grounds that immoral things happened on the Crusades. Each of these objections can be countered, showing that the Crusades were a just war.
First, the Christian nations of Europe were definitely not the aggressors. As we have seen in earlier chapters, the Moslems had been aggressors against the Christians since the seventh century. Their attacks on Christian countries were still going on in the eleventh century. In 1071 the Turks had attacked and virtually annihilated the Byzantine army at Manzikert. It was this defeat that led the Byzantine Emperor to appeal to the Pope for aid against the Moslems. The Christian countries of Europe were clearly justified in defending themselves against Moslem attacks and also in going on the offensive in order to prevent future attacks. At no point did the Crusaders attack the Moslem homeland, Arabia, but only those originally Christian territories that the Moslems had conquered.
Second, it certainly was and is appropriate for Christians to defend themselves and the innocent and helpless against attacks, which is exactly what the Crusaders were doing. It is also appropriate for Christians to try to regain lands which their enemy had conquered, as was the case with the Holy Land. The religious significance of the Holy land makes it even better that Christians try to regain it rather than worse, since Christians had every right to govern the lands where Christ had walked and to protect them from desecration.
Finally, there were certainly abuses during the Crusades, most notably the Sack of Jerusalem and the Sack of Constantinople, both of which are discussed below. But an immoral action during a war does not detract from the justice of the cause of the war. The immoral action should be condemned, as Godfrey de Bouillon condemned the Sack of Jerusalem and Simon de Montfort condemned the Sack of Constantinople, but the war itself remains just.
THE PAPACY
In the 8th and 9th centuries, there is a decline in the power and prestige of the Pope, having given in to secular rulers. The ruler of the German Holy Empire, King Henry III (1017-1056), installed a series of German popes who practiced simony and nepotism. The most outstanding popes of this period who brought about reforms are the following:
Pope NICHOLAS II (1058-1061). He reformed papal elections. He wanted to free it from influence of Roman factions and the secular control of the emperor. He thus called for a synod in the Lateran at Easter, 1059 which was attended by 113 bishops. It approved a law concerning papal elections where the power to choose the pope was restricted to the college of cardinals, a tradition which continues to our times. Nonetheless, King Henry and his successors are given the right to recognise and confirm the election. [Click here for a more thorough discussion of Pope Nicholas II.]
Pope Saint GREGORY VII (1073-1085). He was elected by the cardinals but with a previous acclamation by the people and clergy of Rome. Though he himself waited for the confirmation by the emperor of his election, he issued a decree in 1075 that outlawed the appointment of religious leaders by secular rulers. He moved for the uniform enforcement of clerical celibacy. He also affirmed papal infallibility. [Click here to read more on Pope Saint Gregory VII.]
Pope INNOCENT III (1198-1216). He is the most influential pope of the Middle Ages. He very ably administered the papal states, the Church, and Western Europe. He preached two crusades. He is most remembered for the 4th Lateran Council (1215) which defined the number of the sacraments, the doctrine of the Real Presence, and laid down regulations on receiving penance and the Eucharist. [Click here to read more on Pope Innocent III.]
THE MENDICANTS
People in this period start moving into the urban areas, giving rise to towns and cities. They start to engage in trade, commerce, and cottage industries. This leads to a change in lifestyle as well. The Gospel is spread through a different means, bringing about a change in religious life. Here we see the rise of the mendicant orders--priests depend on the alms of the people they minister to. The centre of these urban areas is the church.
The FRANCISCANS. Founded by Saint Francis of Assisi (1181/82 - 3 October 1226). He underwent a conversion. Saint Clare of Assisi (1194-1253) followed Francis and founded the Poor Clares, a contemplative order for women who devoted themselves to prayer and penance. [Click here for more details about Saint Francis.]
The DOMINICANS. Pope Innocent III asked Saint Dominic (1170-1221) to preach against the Albigensians. Dominic and his followers formed a new order, the Order of Preachers, also called Dominicans. They emphasised the study of theology and preaching the faith. It was through Saint Dominic's apostolate that devotion to the Blessed Virgin through the Holy Rosary spread. [Click here for more details about Saint Dominic.]
CATHEDRALS
The towns and cities saw more people concentrated in a smaller area. This gave rise to the cathedrals which could accommodate many people. Examples of these Gothic cathedrals are the Notre Dame in Paris, in Chartres, and in Cologne. [Click here for a YouTube feature on the Great Gothic Cathedrals of Europe.] [Please click here--yes, please do--for an explanation of the facade of the Gothic cathedral by Andrea Kirby at YouTube.]
EDUCATION
Charlene Altemose (What You Should Know About Church History, p 52) gives us an overview.
In the Middle Ages, only clerics and nobles receive any formal education. Those skilled in the arts or handiwork come under the aegis of a master. They learn the trade and work as apprentices until skilled enough to work on their own.
Most monastic communities, adept at farming, earn their livelihood with crops as income. As civilisation shifts from rural areas to urban centres in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, artisans and craftsmen gather in towns.
Under papal auspices, scholars and students form guilds and unions to protext their rights. The university becomes the centre of learning, specialising in advanced education in theology, philosophy, science, classics, and rhetoric. Most noteworthy of the large universities are Bologna, Paris, and Oxford.
The works of Aristotle, at first considered a threat to Christian beliefs, come to be seen as aids in understanding the faith. Theological truths joined with philosophers' reasoning explain the Christian mysteries. This organising of Catholic truths with concepts of Greek philosophy, called scholasticism, becomes the endorsed method for theological training.
SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS (1225-1274)
Saint Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican, is the greatest theologian of the Middle Ages, just as Saint Augustine is for the early Church. Saint Thomas accomplished an impressive synthesis of the thought of his time, making use not only of the Scripture, Fathers of the Church and theologians who have preceeded him but also Christian and pagan philosophers (such as Plato and Aristotle). He showed the compatibility between faith and reason. He also demonstrated that reason is a great help to exploring the faith and understanding it better.
THE POPES IN AVIGNON (1308-1377)
Pope Boniface VIII (1294-1303) brought splendour to the papacy. In 1300 he declared a Holy Year, thus starting a tradition that is observed until our times. But there was plenty of scandals, internal struggles, feuds between powerful families and instability in Italy. In 1303, Boniface VIII died. In 1305, Clement V (1305-1314) accepted the papacy to please the French king. He never reached Rome. Instead, he lived in a Dominican monastery in Avignon.
Avignon became the residence of seven French popes from 1308 to 1377. [Click here for a quick YouTube video of the Palace of the Popes in Avignon. It is the biggest Gothic palace in the whole of Europe--15,000 sq m of floor space, equivalent to four Gothic cathedrals! Built by Popes Benedict XII and Clement VI, construction started in 1335 and was completed in less than twenty years.] The city thus became a commercial centre for bankers, artists, and scholars. The popes lived in luxury, but elsewhere, people were starving. Since many parishes and dioceses had been abandoned, these began to deteriorate. From 1347-1350, the Black Plague wiped out one third of the European population.
Saint Catherine of Siena (1347-1380) convinced the pope to go back to Rome. Pope Gregory XI (1370-1378) was able to shake himself free from the power of the French king and returned to Rome.
THE GREAT WESTERN SCHISM: THREE POPES AT THE SAME TIME (1378-1417)
Were the French offended by the Pope's move back to Rome? Of course! When Gregory XI died, the conclave elected an Italian who took the name Urban VI. He was harsh, intemperate, authoritarian. He was also accused of insanity. Catherine of Siena tried to help him mend his ways. In 1389, he was poisoned.
But even before Urban VI died, a group of French cardinals returned to Avignon in 1378, and thinking that there was an irregularity in the election of Urban VI, they decided to elect their own Pope--Clement VII, who stayed in Avignon.
We can imagine the chaos and confusion that followed. People were divided. The papacy lost the respect of many. Each Pope excommunicated the other.
By 1409, the Pope in Rome was Gregory XII, and the "Pope" in Avignon was Benedict XIII. To solve the problem, a group of cardinals met in Pisa (Italy) to depose the two Popes and choose a new one. Alexander V (1408) was elected, but is soon succeeded by John XXIII (1410-1414). (Note that the Pope before Pope Paul VI was John XXIII. This means that the John XXIII elected in 1410 is not recognised as a valid Pope). But the two other Popes refused to accept him, so the Church was faced with three claimants to the papacy!
Finally, the COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE (1417) resolved the issue. Gregory XIII abdicated, John XXIII resigned, Benedict XIII of Avignon is deposed, and Martin V (1417-1431) is chosen. Nonetheless, the papacy will suffer more scandals, immorality, nepotism, simony, and concubinage for more decades.
PIETY AND POPULAR DEVOTIONS
Despite all these difficulties, the Faith was not extinguished. On Sundays, the villagers would come to town to sell their goods, and to attend the Mass. This would also happen on the big feast days.
Popular devotions also developed.
MYSTICS AND SAINTS
Again, despite all the difficulties encountered by the Church, God raised up saints that served as beacons for the faithful. Here are some of them.
CATHERINE OF SIENA (1347-1380). She was the 23rd child in the family of a textile merchant in Siena. Because of her deep spirituality, many people seek her out for spiritual guidance. She was instrumental in resolving the Avignon crisis. She has been declared doctor of the Church.
HILDEGARD OF BINGEN (1098-1179). A physician and musical composer at the same time, she was also known for her theological knowledge and deep spirituality. She became an abbess and was a confidante of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux.
THOMAS À KEMPIS (1380-1471). He was a monk, a member of the Brethren of Common Life. He is best known through his work The Imitation of Christ.
JULIAN OF NORWICH (1342-1413). She was an English mystic and recluse. She struggled to understand how the evil can exist if God loves us. In her book Revelations of Divine Love, Julian describes her visions and conversations with our Lord.
"THE CLOUD OF UNKNOWING". This was written by an unknown English mystic. The work teaches that God cannot be known through images and concepts but only by desire in wordless prayer and silence.
THE RENAISSANCE: "REBIRTH" OF CULTURE AND THE ARTS (1300s - 1600s)
This is what William Barry, in the Catholic Encyclopedia, writes about the Renaissance ("rebirth"):
The Renaissance may be considered in a general or a particular sense, as (1) the achievements of what is termed the modern spirit in opposition to the spirit which prevailed during the Middle Ages; or (2) the revival of classic, especially of Greek, learning and the recovery of ancient art in the departments of sculpture, painting, and architecture, lost for a thousand years in Western Christendom.
...Roughly speaking, the age of the Fathers corresponds to the Imperial Roman period, closing in A.D. 476; the Middle Ages occupy those tumultuous years when barbarians turned Christians were learning slowly to be civilized, from 476 to 1400; while the modern relations of Church and State begin with the definite emergence of nationalities in the West, at an era most critical, signalized by the destruction of the Greek Empire, the invention of printing from movable type, the discovery of America, and all this leading on to the Protestant Reformation. History, like life, is a continuous web; its various stages pass into one another by the finest degrees. But after the Great Schism was healed by the Council of Constance in 1417, the Church, turning her back once for all on a worn-out feudalism, and no longer engaged in strife with Teuton emperors, found herself in the presence of new difficulties, and the character of the times was manifestly altered.
THE RENAISSANCE POPES
The dawn of a new kind of attitude brought changes to the Church as well. The attention of the Popes were turned to temporal concerns and the cultural revival. Rome was transformed into the centre of art and culture. This was the time of great works of art (though, sadly, not of great holiness in many Popes).
Furthermore, the Popes also had to continue governing the Papal States (comprised by much of central Italy). When Constantinople fell in 1453, the Renaissance Popes had to call for Crusades against the Ottoma Turks, who posed a threat to the European mainland. But to do this, they had to enter into political alliances with the other powers around them.
Art, architecture, wars all require money. So the Popes resorted to fund raising, which was not always done in an honest way. Simony, bribery, excessive taxation were common.
There were ten Renaissance Popes. Let us mention the more notable (or notorious) ones.
SIXTUS IV (1471-1484). He was a Franciscan friar and a representative Renaissance man. He beautified the city of Rome. The Ponte Sisto, a bridge over the Tiber River, is named after him. He commissioned the Sistine (or Sixtine, from Sixtus) Chapel [click here for a tour of the Sistine Chapel] and organised the Sistine Chapel Choir. He built a hospital. Sixtus IV authorised Ferdinand and Isabella to proceed with the Spanish Inquisition to quell heresy. [Click here for a detailed explanation of the Inquisition.]
ALEXANDER VI (1492-1503). He belongs to the Spanish Borgia family. He is one of the worst Popes in history. He became a cardinal when he was only 25 years old (Pope Calixtus III was his uncle), he amassed a lot of wealth, and was always involved in political intrigue. Many thought that he bought his way to the Papacy. Even as Pope, he lived a corrupt and scandalous life. He had four children with a Roman noblewoman. He made his son Cesare Borgia a cardinal. He also annulled the marriage of his daughter Lucrezia in order to let her marry another more powerful politician. A Dominican named Fra Girolamo Savonarola preached passionately against the corruption in the Church and campaigned to have the Pope deposed. Alexander VI excommunicated him. He was hanged and burned in Florence in 1498. Many faithful Christians, including Saint Philip Neri, considered him a martyr. Alexander VI is also known for settling the dispute between Spain and Portugal in 1492. He drew a line through the Azores on the map such that those lands west of that line belonged to Spain and those to the east belonged to Portugal. This is why in Brazil the people speak Portugese while in the rest of South America, they speak Spanish.
JULIUS II (1503-1513) was a nephew of Sixtus IV. He was a good warrior and was often in wars to regain papal territory. He asked the Swiss for protection for Rome and the Pope and thus the Swiss Guards were conceived. Julius II had the best artists work on Saint Peter's basilica and the other Vatican chapels: Bramante, Michelangelo, Raphael, among others. [Click here for a tour of the Vatican Museums]
LEO X (1513-1521). Leo X belonged to the Medici family. He became a cardinal when he was a mere 13 years old. He also became pope through bribery. He spent everything there was in the papal treasury through his extravagant lifestyle and pompous ceremonies. He also spent lavishly on Saint Peter's Basilica.
It was also during this period that Saint Peter's Basilica was rebuilt. Click on the following YouTube video for the story of the Vatican (Hidden History).
FORERUNNERS OF THE REVOLT
John WYCLIFFE/WYCLIF (1324-1384). He was an English priest who preached against abuses in the church and calls for a return to simplicity. He organised bands of preachers (the Lollards), and translated the Bible into English. The Council of Rome (1412-1413) and the Council of Constance (1414-1418) condemned his teachings and actions. His body was exhumed and his remains burned.
John HUSS/HUS (1369-1415). He was a priest and a professor from Prague. He agreed with Wycliffe. He denounced the papacy and was thus charged with heresy. The Council of Constance orderd him to be burned at the stake. His followers in Bohemia fought against the Catholics and set up the Moravian Church.
Desiderius ERASMUS (1466-1536). He was a Dutch humanist writer who attacked the corruption in the Church in his satire In Praise of Folly. This brought more anger towards the Church.
Now let us see four main Protestant movements:
Lutheranism (1517) led by Martin Luther
Calvinism (1521) led by John Calvin
Anglicanism (1534) led by King Henry VIII
Evangelicalism (1520) led by the Anabaptists
MARTIN LUTHER (1483-1546)
Martin Luther was a German Augustinian monk. He was scandalised by the corrupted life of some of the clergy. He attacked the abuse of indulgences. The Pope excommunicated him, but he burned the bull of excommunication and a copy of the Code of Canon Law in 1520.
Luther's revolt was aided by the politics of the times. The German princes sided with Luther; on the opposite camp was Emperor Charles V with the Pope.
In 1521, the Diet of Worms was called to try to settle the matter peacefully. Luther, however, did not take back his teachings. Luther then took refuge in the castle of Wartburg. It was there where he translated the Bible into German.
In 1525, he renounced his vows and married Katherina von Bora (a former nun); they had six children.
In 1529, Luther's followers were called Protestants for the first time at the Diet of Speyer.
In 1530, the new theology was formulated the Augsburg Confession [Read the text of The Augsburg Confession]. We can summarise its divergence from Catholic belief in three points:
Faith alone (SOLA FIDE) saves (justification by faith alone), or, rather, one is justified by free grace through faith operative in good works. Protestantism does not belittle good works; but it denies their value as sources or conditions of justification, and insists on them as the necessary fruits of faith, and evidence of justification.
Scripture alone (SOLA SCRIPTURA) The Scripture is the only infallible source and rule of faith and practice, and every believer has the right of private interpretation of the same. Catholics believe that aside from Scripture, Sacred Tradition is also a source and rule of faith, and both have been entrusted to the Teaching Office of the Church. Protestantism, however, does not reject church authority as such, but this subordinated to the Bible. In fact, they retained the articles of the ancient creeds and rejected those things which could not be supported by Sacred Scripture.
Priesthood of all believers. While Catholics believe that all the baptised share in the common priesthood, nonetheless, there exists a ministerial priesthood which is given through the Sacrament of Holy Orders. It is the Sacrament of Orders which also makes for a hierarchy in the Catholic Church. For Protestants there is no such distinction. Any believer can be a minister.
In 1999, an accord was signed between the Holy See and the World Lutheran Federation, on the first point above--the problem of justification. On October 31 of that year, Pope John Paul II observed that the agreement was signed "in the same city where, in 1530, the Augsburg Confession wrote a decisive page in the Lutheran Reformation." The Holy Father commented that the new document laid the groundwork for further ecumenical advances, by establishing a common understanding on one of the most hotly disputed theological points that has divided Catholics and Lutherans. [Read the full text of the Joint Declaration]
Regarding the point on justification, the Declaration concluded that the differences did not lie in the substance but in the terms used, the theological explanation, and different emphasis.
40.The understanding of the doctrine of justification set forth in this Declaration shows that a consensus in basic truths of the doctrine of justification exists between Lutherans and Catholics. In light of this consensus the remaining differences of language, theological elaboration, and emphasis in the understanding of justification described in paras. 18 to 39 are acceptable. Therefore the Lutheran and the Catholic explications of justification are in their difference open to one another and do not destroy the consensus regarding the basic truths.
41.Thus the doctrinal condemnations of the 16th century, in so far as they relate to the doctrine of justification, appear in a new light: The teaching of the Lutheran churches presented in this Declaration does not fall under the condemnations from the Council of Trent. The condemnations in the Lutheran Confessions do not apply to the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church presented in this Declaration.
Meanwhile, it also pointed out what still needs to be ironed out in future talks:
43. ...there are still questions of varying importance which need further clarification. These include, among other topics, the relationship between the Word of God and church doctrine, as well as ecclesiology, ecclesial authority, church unity, ministry, the sacraments, and the relation between justification and social ethics. We are convinced that the consensus we have reached offers a solid basis for this clarification.
CALVINIST REFORMERS
Ulrich ZWINGLI (1484-1531). He was a Swiss priest who agreed about the need for a reform but disagreed with Luther on several theological points. Zwingli led a group of followers to fight Catholic Swiss cantons who didn't want to accept his teachings. He died in the battle.
John CALVIN (1509-1564). He was a French lawyer who continued Zwingli's struggle. He was very influential in Geneva where he established a theological college. He believed in predestination: God has determined who will be saved and man cannot do anything about it. The doctrine spread to the Netherlands, Prussia, the Palatinate (Germany) and France. In France, the Calvinists are known as Huguenots.
John KNOX (1513-1572). He was a Scottish priest. He adopted Calvin's ideas in turn and spread them to Scotland, England, and the New World. Here the followers of Calvin and Knox are called Presbyterians. Some of these migrated to America, and were known there as Congregationalists.
HENRY VIII (1509-1547) AND THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND
Henry VIII wrote a book against Luther called The Defence of the Seven Sacraments. He thus earned the title Defender of the Faith. His separation from the Church started because of a personal problem. He wanted to divorce Queen Catherine of Aragon in order to marry her younger sister Anne Boleyn. He first explored all the possible solutions in canon law, but when this proved futile, he challenged the authority of the papacy. The passion for Anne Boleyn which began in 1527 brought about the final break with Rome in 1534. With the Act of Supremacy, Henry appointed himself head of the Anglican church. In the newly-formed church, the monarch of England became the head and the Archbishop of Canterbury became the head prelate. Those who were faithful to Rome were exiled or publicly executed. Father Pirlo (My First History of the Church, p 132) writes:
The martyrs of England, as they are known,were tortured in a most barbarous manner. Some were put on the rack and their arms and legs stretched with chains till they were dismembered. Many of them were beheaded, and their heads were impaled on London Bridge. Others were hanged and eviscerated while still alive. They lost their lives on earth, but won for eternity the crown of martyrdom.
It is worthwhile noting two of the martyrs who died defending the faith in England.
Saint JOHN FISHER (1469-1535). He studied theology in Cambridge, England and became Bishop of Rochester. Because he refused to recognise the king as the supreme head of the Church of England, he was imprisoned in the London Tower, charged with high treason and beheaded. They displayed his head on the London Bridge for several days.
Saint THOMAS MORE (1477-1535). He was a devout Catholic and a prestigious lawyer. He was so prestigious as to be appointed Lord Chancellor of England (a position never before held by a layman). He performed his duties with extreme efficiency. He refused to support Henry VIII's bid for divorce and resigned his post. He was also imprisoned in the London Tower and suffered the same fate as Saint John Fisher in the same year. Before he died, he confessed: "I am the king's good servant, but God's first."
THE ANABAPTISTS: RADICAL REFORMERS
The Anabaptists were a violent and extremely radical body of reformers which appeared as early as 1521 at Zwickau. They claimed that the Bible did not support infant baptism, and hence, only adults should be baptised. They also wanted primitive Christianity to be restored basically by abolishing oaths and capital punishments. They preached a simple communal lifestyle and separation from the world. The Baptists are the descendants of the Anabaptists. Other offshoots are the Hutterites, Amish, Mennonites, and Quakers.