In the First World War, described as the Great War, the mechanised age wielded frightening power, fighting on land, in the air, and both on and under water. Prior to this conflict, there were many different marques of motorcycle, and the military recognised their advantages. This resulted in some development, but also had negative impacts on the world economy, societal and individual conditions. Virtually every country was hit by debt and human loss. Even after the fighting had stopped, there was a feeling of exhaustion rather than victorious elation.

In 1916, the UK Ministry of Munitions banned the construction of bikes for private use For the Duration. Only the firms serving the war effort were allowed to continue production, but strictly for military purposes. While this gave them some capital to help during post-war years, other bike manufacturers were left to struggle, and many folded. Specialist publications appeared containing articles like Running on Paraffin, expressing the need to cut down fuel costs. A few economic, lightweight makes appeared, like the Kumfurt and Gaby, using small two-stroke engines. Otherwise the demand for raw materials, workshop facilities and other associated trades was pushed into military production. Fuel rationing was also imposed, and these grinding forces left the motorcycle industry in tatters.

Many people entering military service had never ridden motorcycles until they received their orders. The sport of motorcycle trials was adopted by the military as a means to train riders for the war experience. Through their various uses, bikes became part of the irony of war. They were used to muster the minds behind the destruction, as motorcycle and sidecar combinations (combos) replaced staff cars wherever the terrain was impassable by other means. Solo-mounted despatch riders cemented this by conveying information. With machine guns mounted in the sidecars, bikes enjoined in the actual killing. Then the mobilisation of medical staff on combinations brought the first biking paramedics into existence, to rescue the victims of the carnage.

1 Anonymous found in junkshop

The tenacity and brave deeds of motorcycling soldiers gave them a cachet of romance and excitement beyond their inherent speed-freak entity. Purposeful heroism (as opposed to sporting heroics) put the bike in a new societal position, and its users enjoyed a brief spell of unbiased recognition. In the field of combat, despatch riders from opposite sides sometimes met, and would stop to exchange cigarettes and stories. The great respect among some military personnel for each other has been immortalised in stories like that of the ‘Red’ Baron Von Richtoven; an aviator who would salute an enemy pilot rather than shoot them out of the sky if they couldn’t fight back. German decorations of honour, like the Blue Max and Iron Cross were respected as much as other country’s decorations because of this international respect for noblesse. It was natural behaviour among people with mutual recognition; Nikolaus August Otto (who designed the petrol engine) and Gottlieb Daimler had been crucial candidates in motorcycle development, so why ostracise them, even if your countries were at war? Yet among civilians, the idiosyncrasy of hatred associations was squarely opposed.

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After the war, of those who were left alive, some continued with bikes, having discovered a practical if not pleasurable use for them. There are stories of some military riders who became so attached to their machines, they were reluctant to return them to the authorities. They were ridden or shipped great distances to get them back home.

The use of sidecars had created a demand for greater power, and Triumph were the first among others to fit motorcycles with larger engines. This power also made it possible to carry pillion passengers on solo machines. At first, a cushion was precariously placed on the luggage carrier (a rack above the rear wheel), and some rode side-saddle. It became tidier and safer when rear foot-rests and pillion seats were fitted. This enabled motorcyclists to take passengers into what had previously been a solitary experience. The all-consuming motorcycle could already make or break human relationships, and the added ability of riding two-up (and more in the ‘chair’ as sidecars became known) introduced more tension or pleasure, depending on the passenger’s view. Biking circles had now expanded beyond the enthusiasts, into family and friends.

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Post W.W.I, economic forces were instrumental in persuading people’s choice of transport - high bus-fares in the UK helped with the popularity of lighter motorcycles. This polarised British bike manufacture and left some makers without direction. Should they go for the larger machines and follow race development, or go for the utility market, or both? By October of 1929, Wall Street had crashed. It just missed the end of the racing season, however it had a devastating effect on bike manufacture. Those firms whose production had followed the racing trend retained some stability. At the other end of the market, there were so many firms making little bikes that the market-share was thinly spread. To avoid folding, some companies went into other production, not always vehicular; the builders of AJS motorcycles decided to make radios. The market was also flooded with cheap ex-military machines. While this enabled more people to come into biking, some failing manufacturers blamed it for stinting the sales of new bikes. However, Europe had suffered such great human loss in the war effort, that populations between school-leaving and retirement ages were drastically thinned, removing much of the prospective market for any such product.

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In post W.W.I America, brand loyalty was divided more or less into two extreme camps, that of Harley-Davidson (HD) and Indian. The division was reflected - some would say instigated - at corporate levels. The economic hardship inflicted by the Wall Street crash gave rise to clashes between these early superpowers, the highlight of which became known as the Denver Incident. Walter D. Whiting had been running a successful outlet for HD in Denver. His chief competitor in business was Leslie D. Richards, who had acquired the Indian franchise for Denver from a dealer named Floyd Clymer. Whiting and Richards had worked together to further biking, cosponsoring a local motorcycle club. HD were particularly intolerant of any other brand, and told Whiting that his liaison with an Indian dealer was against their policy. He defended his position by reminding them of his great sales record, but it wasn’t enough.

Clymer had previously relinquished the Indian dealership to Richards so that he could devote more time to another enterprise. Meanwhile, this had failed, and he wanted back in. Seeing the weakened position that Whiting was in, he opted to change ships again, and asked HD for Whiting’s franchise. Seemingly without any compunction, they allowed Clymer to assume it, putting one of their own best dealers out of commission. The Denver Incident was prominent in US Biker’s minds for years afterwards, and contributed to the awkwardness and hostility between followers of Indian and HD motorcycles.

The cut-throat behaviour among some manufacturers was alien to the basic Biker ethic. It was born of greed and corporate arrogance that was only tolerated because some firms were building good bikes. Pre-W.W.I., there had been many makes of motorcycle manufactured in America, but for various reasons, there would soon be only one left. The Indian company was suffering financially, and wealthy (Aryan French) businessman Mr. E. Paul Du Pont had bolstered their business with cash. He was slandered by some business competitors as “That New Jersey Jew”. Du Pont expressed resentment not so much at his name-calling, but because HD had reneged on a price-fixing deal. In previous attempts to quell the animosity between themselves, HD and Indian had agreed on an annual price fixing of their various models. This was to prevent undercutting price wars, and at least stabilise their positions in the market; regardless of what other marques were doing. HD had disregarded that agreement.

After the Denver Incident, those HD dealers who had any Indian motorcycles scrapped the slightly older stock remaining in their show rooms. Motorcycle historians have blamed this kind of animosity for the retardation and impediment of all motorcycle development and for the unrest that arose between riders in the US. HD’s hatred for other marques had been described as paranoic. Perhaps, in a land of free trading, it is natural to become over-protective toward product and innovation. But competition between manufacturers was usually based on superior product, not by doing the other side down. To HD’s credit, they were more generous to their workforce than their contemporaries, paying well above average wages.

By 1931, the depressed industry was having a knock-on effect into other biking fields. Only one publication remained in America. Formerly known as the Pacific Motorcyclist and Bicyclist, it became known at this time as The Motorcyclist. It also became the official HD magazine. Outspoken journalists looking for work sent in manuscripts but were turned down. The only people fit to write about HDs were in-house writers as far as HD were concerned. In the mass media, racing was featured less and less, and local events went unreported. All this left America with only one motorcycling voice for a considerable period.

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One alleged cause for the demise in US racing and bike sales was the heavy import tax in the commonwealth countries, that made it easier for them to export to the US. The Buy British movement in particular inspired UK manufacturers, and British marques like AJS, Norton and Triumph were beating the American machines on their home ground. Other European firms like Moto-Guzzi also met with success. The comparative lightness and high power of these machines attracted many US riders, while others regarded them as effete. Reliability was another factor, as American bikes were more suited to their own climate and unending roads.

Meanwhile the US home market was still active. Besides the bikes, HD were now selling their three-wheeled Servicar to the US Police force and exporting them to tradespeople around the world, including Japan, as a handy delivery vehicle. Meanwhile, Indian had bolstered their sales by fitting the twist-grip throttle on the left handlebar. This allowed armed police pursuers to use a gun in their right hand. It was a bright move, as the motorcycle had found itself put to illegal uses in America. Some of those avoiding the prohibition of alcohol used motorcycles to make their deliveries. The Rum-Runners, as they were called, had preferred HD sidecar outfits because they were too quick for police cars to catch them.

Other more formalised groups were also established in the US. They did charity events and promoted an All-American, nice side of biking. Various motorcycle drill teams were formed, including among others, police riders, and The Nobles of The Mystic Shrine, an elite order of the Masons. Verna Griffith formed a group for female riders, known as the Motor Maids Of America. Recognised by the AMA, the Motor Maids were mostly HD riders, but some rode Indians. It has been said that these ‘diminutive’ riders were admired for their ability to heft big bikes. Oddly, some did not attribute this to their physical prowess, but to the excellent ignition systems on HDs - corporate bull that wouldn’t wash with genuine riders.

While some clubs were a healthy embodiment of biking proper, others were comparable with a sort of motorcycle Disney World. Besides indulging in formation riding, their social events included picnics on well equipped machines (i.e. overloaded with accessories). These clubs used smart uniforms that were mandatory at functions. An obsession with control and formality spoilt its own efforts by insisting on compliance. This created an extension of mass society which many believed was now out-dated if not defunct. It was not in the true spirit of the modern age that many believed they were entering. Bikerdom’s unregulated ethos allowed cliques to put their own peculiar spin on biking. The Western obsession with proper behaviour was masking out the underlying camaraderie that had no use for imagery or societal pretenses.

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Leisure and freedom had suddenly gained importance on both sides of the Atlantic as people recovered from the post-war depression. Travel and motorcycle racing had been so popular during this new age of independence that the first ever travel agency, run by the originator of the business, Thomas Cook, provided coach excursions from the UK to the Ulster Motorcycle Grand Prix. Elsewhere in the UK, previously forgotten villages had signs advertising tea rooms for weary travellers, while Bed and Breakfast houses and camping took over where coaching inns had left off. Along with this, media growth was permitting an indirect cultural exchange. Popular songs that had previously been sold in sheet form were now heard on radios and phonographs. These media mechanisms were the vehicles for the later subcultural messages.

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Among W.W.I’s survivors was a generation that had been pushed to its limits, who were seeking something to replace if not alleviate the extremes of war. This condition in post W.W.II has been pointed as at least a part of the cause for rebels on motorcycles. There are similarities with these combat refugees, but post W.W.I, this was not so much evidence for a rebel Biker, as an attempt to sustain the pure biking spirit. Most people were just relieved as the hostilities ceased. The water-closet was replacing the midden, and gas, coal and electricity provided light and heat for better domestic environments. An element of fun rather than social or political thought was present, with dances like the Charleston being popular. There were however, signs of an identifiable generation gap, particularly in inner cities. The old, pre-modernist ways with extended families were breaking down. And it was among jazz aficionados that new social, not just musical terms were being coined. The us-and-them battles were signified by the use of ‘hip’ and ‘square’.

The Roaring Twenties, as they became known, were a frivolous party mood. In the UK, the Edwardian Dandies appeared; arrogant, smooth and well dressed. The Dandies were nothing to do with the motorcyclists of their times, but were predecessors in a breeding ground that would later give rise to a use of bikes beyond the pleasure of riding. It is alleged that the human loss of the war had left many youths without parental control and management. Gangs were a phenomenon of these times, but not always criminal, and not always youths. They were often made up of restless working class people, with some kind of protest in mind - like those who marched from Jarrow. Under the financially difficult conditions of the time, the motorcycle was still out of reach if not difficult to acquire for the lower-paid. Its position as cheap transport was a relative assumption rather than a reality.

The inter-war recovery period did allow motorcycling to become more popular. At the Olympia Show of 1930, thirty-eight makes of British bikes appeared, and American makes were turning up in showrooms across the UK. Attendance at the show was enormous and held out some hope despite the depressed economy. British manufacturers read the market well, and set their own precedent for making the lightest bike with the biggest engine at the lowest price. Accessories like shock-proof watches As worn by TT riders became available. Those who couldn’t afford luxuries cashed in on the availability of ex-military clothing; despatch riders’ boots and weather-proofs became sensible civilian biking kit.

Racing development now included the foot gear-change, which made riding even easier by freeing the hands for other controls. The continued de-fangling of bikes was key to removing their mystery to outsiders and promoting sales. Easier handling and lower fuel consumption became part of their attraction. The developers turned to light, strong modern metals like duraluminium, as used in the aircraft industry. This super-efficiency kept motorcycles on the edge of technological advancement.

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The last day of 1930 was of significance, creating two new areas of biking, by splitting history. The Vintage Club had stated that: “A vintage motorcycle is one manufactured between January 1st 1915 and December 31st 1930.” Machines made prior to this were now to be regarded as veterans. Such hindsight and zonal interference with time has lead to other distinct areas, like the first Golden Age of motorcycling around the 1930s. The disappearance of quality marques triggered a hankering for them that was not entirely sentimental. Many designs had been ahead of their time, which had contributed to their demise. Whatever the reason, certain bikes were sought out and preserved not as decorous show pieces but because of their excellent rideability. Motorcycling was accruing a heritage.

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A Taxation Scale introduced by Neville Chamberlain in 1930 had adversely affected many UK businesses, motorcycle firms included. It meant a bracketing of bike-types that made taxes on the small utility machines too high. Such meddling further encouraged the move from two onto three or more wheels. It was exacerbated when fitting a sidecar reduced solo insurance by 50%. This, however, also allowed three-wheelers like Reliant to gain popularity over the car. Three-wheel cars or tricycles were generally considered to have lost out to bikes (or cars). However, prior to the enclosed Reliant, when the V-Twin engines of Matchless and J.A. Prestwich (JAP) were put into open three-wheeled sports cars like the Morgan, their popularity had grown. Concurrent with the development of sidecars and other three-wheelers, some businesses (not all of them motorcycle manufacturers) had evolved the cycle car. They formed a mechanistic relationship with bikes, having similar chassis designs and even bike engines. This culminated in the quads of the 1980s, some of which are enclosed; but they, like tikes, remain on the periphery of the bike world.

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One guest at a banquet held for the 1934 Olympia show in the UK was Dr. E. L. Burgin. He said that the motorcycle industry had suffered less than any other business during the depression. However, Burgin’s comments didn’t reflect the actual losses. Many manufacturers only continued because they were bought out by others or had acquired support during the war years from the military. Much Badge Engineering resulted from the buy-outs. Financial difficulties hit Rudge, who soon ceased bike production after being bought out by HMV, later known as EMI. (A reversal of that could have had an interesting impact on later recording artistes.) Besides the disappearance of many bike manufacturers, other related businesses were lost as a result of W.W.I. For example Pratts, a petroleum company synonymous with motoring were bought out by Esso.

People in high places began to make further impressions on motorcycling. In 1933 Prince George gave the TT a royal seal of approval by joining the spectators. Reich Chancellor Hitler also became interested in racing and motors; he declared that new machines were exempt from tax provided they stayed with the original owners. By 1934, Germany was the largest biking country in the world, with three-quarters of a million riders. Adolph Hitler took pride in his BMW riders. German machines regularly won races, and a BMW won the Isle of Man TT in 1934.

The imminence of another war again lead to trials being set up by the military in the UK and abroad. The results of one event were deemed void by the British. In the face of the impending hostilities, their team withdrew, and the Germans declared a victory by default. Meanwhile the Italian Fascist press supported the use of motorcycles, proposing that the people become: “A nation of motorized centaurs.” This fell in line with the personal interests of biking enthusiast Mussolini, who preferred his officials to use bikes as a means to be nearer the people. Quite a clever move, not just because of the fanaticism among Italians for motorcycles; but because to many people, the only important things to happen occur at street-level.

There was another force that was able to affect public opinions: the cinema. In the late 1930’s, a Lancashire lad by the name of George Formby gained immense popularity. A keen rider in real life, he performed humorous songs, accompanying himself on a ukulele banjo. The film producers had recognised the power of song in association with movies, and Formby sang about his exploits as a TT rider, in the 1935 film, No Limit. His light yet down-to-earth attitude reflected the mood of the UK, where enthusiastic motorcycling was more domestically acceptable if not practiced.

Other attempts to affect street-life came from celebrities, who were used as endorsements to give biking some added kudos. Hollywood’s Victor Fleming and Clarke Gable were photographed with bikes, and American Keenan Wynn spoke out in Life magazine against drinking and driving, which was a common accusation aimed at US post-war riders.

Aviators and motorcyclists became intrinsically bound, partly through the adventuresome spirit shared by the riders and pilots. It was also due to their joint appearances at fairs and shows. The barnstormers - stunt aviators - performed alongside dirt track and wall of death riders (where motorcycles were ridden up the inside wall of a wooden tower about 20 feet in diameter). T. E. Lawrence was among others who had engaged in land-air racing between motorcycle and aeroplane, and US stunt pilot Charles Lindbergh cemented the relationship by riding bikes as well. Also in the US, the horse’s association with motorcycles was echoed by Roy Roger’s enthusiasm for bikes.

In later years, it helped to quell public misgivings knowing that Haile Selassie, Che Guevara, actor John Pertwee, author Stephen King, Senator Ben Campbell and King Albert I of Belgium also rode. This biking fame is more common knowledge among Bikers than mass-society, which questions the viability of such patronisation. It did perhaps create some tolerance where negativity had previously existed, as the existence of George Formby fans among others attests.

The filtration system from upper echelons of society down to the street conveys many affectations, and media messages can support or destroy their intentions. The receivers - the people on the street - view the activities of celebrities as acceptable or intolerable. It depends on their position, and the position of the role models. There are some riders who look to such figures in creating themselves, but largely, people get into bikes because of what they are. To those outside of biking, the lowest common denominator can be the ruling factor. For example, their esteem of any celebrity might diminish if that celebrity became associated with bikes; the opposite of the intended effect.

The momentum that kept the early motorcycle fraternity running came from people who rode motorcycles in earnest. In 1934, Florence Blenkiron was awarded the Gold Star; this medal was awarded to riders for lapping Brooklands at over 100 mph. Due to gender attitudes in those times, Blenkiron’s achievement carried a positive message to other female riders. She also travelled from London to Capetown and back, but her partner for the mission, Theresa Wallach, missed the return trip through illness. A subdued reception met Blenkiron, in sad comparison to the noisy accolades that greeted men’s achievements. Yet another message for the female rider, if not so positive, in that it highlighted how much more difficult things were for women. In 1939, it was Theresa Wallach’s turn to acquire the Gold Star. The existence of this award encouraged many innovators as well as riders, and eventually lead to the manufacture of a BSA of the same name, that played an important role in later biking.

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During this time, an admix of authors were setting down travelogues, including those who employed lackeys to reconnoiter, fetch and carry, as well as the more earnest adventurer. Luckily for such travellers, the simple design of early bikes made it easy to make improvised repairs. Some, like Geoffrey Malins, set down what seemed like a catalogue of hardships called Going Further, in 1931. He and his companion, another Brit called Charles Oliver, encountered adventure despite their having letters of introduction to make them welcome in the back of beyond. The motorcycle had again become multimedia property, and was more popular than its comparative minority status might suggest.

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In 1936, Edward Turner joined Triumph, and designed a twin cylinder engine. It became the standard by which BSA (British Small Arms) and other firms worked, in a new era of bike design. Discussions among riders and designers had divided camps of followers behind the twin and single cylinder engines. The simplicity of the single allowed ease of maintenance, however Turner’s twin merely doubled up on certain components. It eventually proved its reliability and power, and became such a popular design that it lingered long after other breakthroughs had been made. This eventually created a complacency that contributed to the UK’s downfall in bike manufacture and supremacy.

A firm called Villiers did well in the utility market with their small two-stroke engines. Some machines powered by them became known as Pip-squeaks, after cartoon characters Pip, Squeak (and Wilfrid). On the small bike theme, Royal Enfield made the Flying Flea, which was a folding bike that could be dropped with parachutists. The adaptation of cartoon characters and nicknaming of bikes continued to add a cachét of curiosity to biking.

For a brief window in time, people outside of Bikerdom acknowledged it for what it was, not what they or the social commentors thought it should be. Because of personal preferences, the motorcycle would never become as domesticated as the radio or motorcar. But its appearance in sport, film, leisure and the war gave it a permanent position in social history. Whilst to some degree its involvement in the war had been critical to humanitarian issues, it remained a peculiar outsider. The motorcycle was here to stay, yet its fraternal following became more of a satellite, rather than an off-shot of mass-society.

Although the ubiquitous black leather jacket had now arrived, people who weren’t avid enthusiasts still used everyday clothes on their bikes. Working clothes, some weather protection and the current fashions were still predominant in the biking world. From its earliest beginnings, biking had spread from the seclusion of the inventor’s shed and embraced the world.