Competency A

“Each graduate of the Master of Library and Information Science program is able to…demonstrate awareness of the ethics, values, and foundational principles of one of the information professions, and discuss the importance of intellectual freedom within that profession."

Introduction

Part of being a professional of any kind is to adhere to a code of ethics that defines the values and appropriate behaviors for their field. Librarians are professionals and as such, also follow a code of ethics and use a set of core values that inform and direct our actions as employees of any information organization. There will be instances in our careers where we will have to fall back on this set of ethics and values as justification for our actions and decisions. As history has shown time and again (most recently in Syria) there are those who will either want to re-write history according their own ideological beliefs or erase it all together. As custodians of information we need to protect information as well as the right of everyone to have access to that information whether we “agree” with that information or not.  Libraries and public schools are almost the last bastions of democracy in the U.S. and librarians are charged with making sure that there are no undue influences in the collections and services that libraries provide. Everyone is treated as an individual with equal rights to privacy, materials, and services no matter the color of their skin, their sexual orientation, their physical abilities, or their economic situation. Together, our code of ethics, core values, and basic principles help guide us in our everyday interactions with anyone we may come in contact with including patrons, stakeholders, fellow colleagues, law enforcement personnel, as well as in the acquisition of materials, and dissemination of information and services.

Ethics

Merriam-Webster defines ethics as “an area of study that deals with ideas about what is good and bad behavior: a branch of philosophy dealing with what is morally right or wrong” (Merriam-Webster, 2016). The Business Dictionary defines ethics as “the basic concepts and fundamental principles of decent human conduct. It includes study of universal values such as the essential equality of all men and women, human or natural rights, obedience to the law of land, concern for health and safety and, increasingly, also for the natural environment” (BusinessDictionary.com, 2016). A code of ethics is typically developed by a professional organization as a set of standards for a community of practice. While there are code of ethics and professional guidelines for library-related professional organizations such as the Association for Information Science & Technology and the Society of American Archivists, the code of ethics most librarians are familiar with are those from the American Library Association. The American Library Association has developed a professional code of ethics for librarians (American Library Association, 2016a) which was originally created in 1939 but has been amended several times, the most recent in 2008.  It should be noted that not all the principals found in the ALA code of ethics are shared by other organizations of information professionals (Garnar, 2015,Table 30.1). The ALA code of ethics are provided for guidance when making ethical decisions. The 8 statements that make up the code are:

1. “We provide the highest level of service to all library users through appropriate and usefully organized resources; equitable service policies; equitable access; and accurate, unbiased, and courteous responses to all requests.

2. We uphold the principles of intellectual freedom and resist all efforts to censor library resources.

3. We protect each library user's right to privacy and confidentiality with respect to information sought or received and resources consulted, borrowed, acquired or transmitted.

4. We respect intellectual property rights and advocate balance between the interests of information users and rights holders.

5. We treat co-workers and other colleagues with respect, fairness, and good faith, and advocate conditions of employment that safeguard the rights and welfare of all employees of our institutions.

6. We do not advance private interests at the expense of library users, colleagues, or our employing institutions.

7. We distinguish between our personal convictions and professional duties and do not allow our personal beliefs to interfere with fair representation of the aims of our institutions or the provision of access to their information resources.

8. We strive for excellence in the profession by maintaining and enhancing our own knowledge and skills, by encouraging the professional development of co-workers, and by fostering the aspirations of potential members of the profession.” (American Library Association, 2016).

This set of standards define how we make decisions as librarians. For example, even if I have a personal dislike for some particular materials carried by the library, if someone wishes to access those materials, the code of ethics requires me to provide access while keeping my opinions to myself. The code also requires me to oppose any efforts to censor materials, even if I hold the opinion that the material is lousy and not fit to see the light of day. I should not let personal prejudices and beliefs interfere with my responsibilities as a librarian. An example of advancing private interests at the expense of the users would be purchasing and promoting materials from someone because I know them or because they showed me special attention not because I determined the patrons would benefit from the purchase. Another way we could be accused of not following our code of ethics would be if I discriminated against anyone including patrons and coworkers because they were different from me. This includes skin color, sexual orientation, economic situation, age differences, and dress.  If we see someone else mistreating a patron or a coworker we need to step in and stop the abuse, regardless of who is involved. Finally, we protect the privacy of our users and colleagues.  We don’t gossip about what materials were taken out or looked at. There is an insidious law (Patriot Act) that says that librarians must give up patron records if law enforcement comes looking for them, but as a librarian I would do everything possible to circumvent those requests, including going to jail. As a librarian, I believe in the right of people to have access to material without fear of any kind.

Generally, librarians don’t run into ethical dilemmas every day, but the code of ethics exists so we know what to do in special situations when there is an issue (Rubin, 2010, chapter 10). A code of ethics is a set of professional standards that help to limit (and identify) unethical behavior. As such, every librarian should be as familiar with it as they are with any other aspect of their profession.

Library Bill of Rights

The Library Bill of Rights is a document that was originally adopted by the American Library Association in 1939 and has been revised several times with the most recent revision occurring in 1996. This set of principles guides library and information practice in the U.S.  The bill of rights, found on the American Library Association’s website (2016c), include:

1. “Books and other library resources should be provided for the interest, information, and enlightenment of all people of the community the library serves. Materials should not be excluded because of the origin, background, or views of those contributing to their creation.

2. Libraries should provide materials and information presenting all points of view on current and historical issues. Materials should not be proscribed or removed because of partisan or doctrinal disapproval.

3. Libraries should challenge censorship in the fulfillment of their responsibility to provide information and enlightenment.

4. Libraries should cooperate with all persons and groups concerned with resisting abridgment of free expression and free access to ideas.

5. A person’s right to use a library should not be denied or abridged because of origin, age, background, or views.

6. Libraries which make exhibit spaces and meeting rooms available to the public they serve should make such facilities available on an equitable basis, regardless of the beliefs or affiliations of individuals or groups requesting their use” (American Library Association, 2016c).

Selection of materials for the whole community with a wide range of viewpoints and making sure that those materials are accessible by everyone ensures that freedom of speech is respected. Rejection of censorship and cooperation with others to fight censorship is another principle promoted in the Library Bill of Rights.   However, there will be situations in which there will be arguments against some of these principles such as access to certain materials by children. The ALA takes a stance that there will be no denial of access to children and that it is up to the parents to decide what their children should have access to or not.  Although the ALA takes this stance, many libraries now employ software filters that block access to certain types of internet sites. In many cases, funding for libraries will be withheld if the software filters are not in place. 

It is important to realize the connections between our code of ethics and democracy. Libraries and librarians have been stewards of democracy since at least the late 1800s. It is not by chance that the ALA has developed a “Library Bill of Rights”. While the ALA is necessarily focused on the principles of democracy within the U.S., in our increasingly globalized world, as librarians we can still use these principles anywhere in the world. We understand that a democratic society needs an informed citizenry who in turn elect governmental representatives who will make decisions based on their understanding of local and national interests.  This means we must make as much information available as possible without regard to income, physical ability, sexual orientation, gender, race, or religion (McCook and Phenix, 2008) so that the citizens can make informed decisions on who will represent them in government. 

Freedom to Read

The Freedom to Read statement, issued by the American Library Association in 1953 and amended several times, most recently in June 2004, contains seven propositions directly related to the right of anyone to read what they want without interference from publishers, librarians, and others who believe they can force their opinions onto others. These propositions include:

1. “It is in the public interest for publishers and librarians to make available the widest diversity of views and expressions, including those that are unorthodox, unpopular, or considered dangerous by the majority.

2. Publishers, librarians, and booksellers do not need to endorse every idea or presentation they make available. It would conflict with the public interest for them to establish their own political, moral, or aesthetic views as a standard for determining what should be published or circulated.

3. It is contrary to the public interest for publishers or librarians to bar access to writings on the basis of the personal history or political affiliations of the author.

4. There is no place in our society for efforts to coerce the taste of others, to confine adults to the reading matter deemed suitable for adolescents, or to inhibit the efforts of writers to achieve artistic expression.

5. It is not in the public interest to force a reader to accept the prejudgment of a label characterizing any expression or its author as subversive or dangerous.

6. It is the responsibility of publishers and librarians, as guardians of the people's freedom to read, to contest encroachments upon that freedom by individuals or groups seeking to impose their own standards or tastes upon the community at large; and by the government whenever it seeks to reduce or deny public access to public information.

7. It is the responsibility of publishers and librarians to give full meaning to the freedom to read by providing books that enrich the quality and diversity of thought and expression. By the exercise of this affirmative responsibility, they can demonstrate that the answer to a "bad" book is a good one, the answer to a "bad" idea is a good one” (American Library Association, 2016d).

The Freedom to Read statement not only places the responsibility to make material available that covers the widest range of views on librarians and publishers, it also stresses that one can disagree with the ideas expressed in the content and still make sure those views are available.  The Freedom to Read statement acknowledges that ideas may be considered “dangerous” by the majority, but that suppression of ideas are fatal to a democracy: ideas considered dangerous today might be debunked tomorrow while things considered acceptable might turn out to be dangerous. For example, it was thought (because of Darwin) that women’s brains were inferior to men’s because of overdeveloped sense organs. Of course, we now know that is not true. On the other hand, in 1899, a very popular book called “Vitalogy” was used by millions of Americans for medical advice and home remedies for all sorts of medical problems. A cure for cancer can be found in the form of strapping a dead chicken to the breast of the affected patient as well as the ingestion of turpentine for many common medical issues.

Values

The core values that the American Library Association agreed upon were ratified in June, 2004.  We need to understand that these core values inform and direct our professional practice, regardless of type of information organization for which we are associated (American Library Association, 2016b). I discuss each of the eleven core values below.

Access

Equitable access means that there is nothing that should keep users from accessing information that is made available by the organization. This may increasingly become an issue as costs for information raise making some types of information too expensive for the information organization to acquire. Because the library may be the only place where some people can get access to the internet, there should be no barriers to the use of technology including economic situation, ability, and age (Gorman, 2008). In some cases, donors may make restriction of access to certain materials a condition of acquiring the materials. The acceptance of such donations presents an ethical dilemma for which the code of ethics may be consulted. Finally, there may be arguments for restriction that rest on those of confidentiality, in which case the principle of access may be compromised while upholding the right to privacy.

Confidentiality/Privacy

The right to privacy of beliefs, home, persons, and possessions is elucidated in the U.S. Bill of Rights and has been reaffirmed many times over the years by the Supreme Court. In terms of information privacy, there are a few federals laws that protect information privacy such as the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act of 1998, the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act, Protection of Pupil Rights Amendment, the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, the Fair Credit Reporting Act, and the Health Insurance Portability Act of 1996 (Givens, 2015), but none that explicitly say that users of the libraries have legal protection. In fact, in 2001, a law was passed that allowed law enforcement agencies to approach libraries with warrants for the circulation records of “suspected terrorists” and librarians not only had to comply but they were also not allowed to tell anyone, especially the person whose records were sought, that they had been served the warrant. However, our code of ethics requires us to “protect each library user's right to privacy and confidentiality with respect to information sought or received and resources consulted, borrowed, acquired or transmitted”. As custodians of circulation records and use of materials in the library this law directly conflicts with our code of ethics. This means that if we give up the records we are breaking our code of ethics and if we don’t we risk going to jail.

Democracy

We currently live in a time when the greatest number of people have voting rights, yet more and more do not bother to vote. Part of this is due the to raise of the “entertainment” culture wherein everyone is attached to their electronic devices or watching “reality” T.V. and becoming more and more disconnected from their communities. In an instant-gratification culture, reading beyond the headlines is not to be expected and people get their news in sensationalized sound bites, if at all. This means that whenever an event (usually shocking) occurs, there is never time nor inclination to give the event some context. I can personally relate to this because whenever I would come to the U.S. to visit for a conference or other meeting from Israel and I would watch American News and I was always shocked. It seemed more dangerous in the United States than I remembered, even taking into consideration the types of violence we were exposed to in the Middle East!  Everyone’s kids were being kidnapped, in broad daylight, literally snatched out of their parents’ hands. Someone was murdered on every street corner, public schools so dangerous it was time to home school your kids behind locked doors and closed curtains.  Almost all the news stories were bad and scary with a great deal of time spent on information that was basically useless. On the other hand, there was no real political news and no international news at all unless it was bad news. I suddenly realized that if this was what Americans were watching to get their news, their understanding would necessarily be warped (as was mine) and the information they were getting was infotainment, lacking even the fundamental information with which to make informed decisions.

As librarians, we need to actively work to reverse this trend. As information experts we are part of the solution when we recommend the material that gives context or help a patron to get registered to vote. Because librarianship in the U.S. is grounded in democratic ideals, we should be doing everything we can to encourage thoughtful participation in our democratic society.

Diversity

Libraries serve diverse populations and our code of ethics requires us to “provide the highest level of service to all library users through appropriate and usefully organized resources; equitable service policies; equitable access; and accurate, unbiased, and courteous responses to all requests.” Equitable in this sense means everyone, regardless of race, religion, age, sexual orientation, physical ability, gender, and any other category that can be attached to human beings. Additionally, we treat our coworkers with respect and celebrate our differences. Diversity in American libraries has not always been an important value and this is why it has become very important to stress. In the late 1960’s the civil rights movement brought racial inequalities to the forefront of American consciousness. There were hero librarians who worked to provide access to African Americans and suffered for doing so. Ruth Brown was fired from the Oklahoma Public Library for opening up services and collections to African Americans (Marek, 2015). Fortunately, our Library Bill of Rights, Values, and code of ethics now say there is absolutely no grounds for dismissal in this situation.

Education and Lifelong Learning

Librarians are committed to education and support of lifelong learning. As part of our values we support the idea of equal access for everyone. This means that in some cases we may need to teach some people how to access the materials. For example, an elderly person with very little experience on computers will need help and guidance in learning how to use the library catalog or fill in on-line forms. In areas with immigrant populations or low-income households, the library may be the only place to learn the read. It is not uncommon to find programs in public libraries that directly support the learning goals and objectives of local schools. This can occur when the school itself cannot fulfill those objectives alone. Finally, we support lifelong learning by helping to find appropriate materials for the learning goals of our patrons.  

Intellectual Freedom

The term “intellectual freedom” is used by librarians and other information professionals to “describe the individual’s freedom to read, view, discuss, or interact with information in any format” (Jones, 2015). This means that aside from keeping circulation records confidential, librarians must also do everything they can to allow access and at the same time keep all forms of information use private. In our internet-connected world, online information and the use of that information also needs to be kept private.  Our code of ethics requires us to “uphold the principles of intellectual freedom and resist all efforts to censor library resources.” Resisting the collection of information on users browsing history and other internet uses is very important as data collection and analysis tools become more and more sophisticated. Recommendation engines and other ads that target specific users based on their browsing history may seem innocuous, but in reality this data can also be turned against people. This is especially frightening when the data being collected is on children. In Colorado, there are no laws against for-profit data companies collecting data on children (including internet activities that can sometimes be required by the school, for example, assignments using Google Classroom). In a recent case, one such company was doing data collection in one district with the goal of targeting the needs of individual children. It was determined that the company was collecting data on the children and their families, storing it on insecure cloud servers, and there was no guarantee that the data would not be used or sold for marketing purposes (EdSurge, 2013).

Intellectual freedom is probably one of the thorniest issues we face as we try to walk the line of not restricting materials while placating politicians and other community members, especially parents.  The annual “Banned Books Weeks” sponsored by the American Library Association is testament to the constant struggle to maintain intellectual freedom. Whenever material is banned this can be considered an act against free speech (Jones, 2015) and therefore against democratic ideals. Our ethics and democratic values require us to resist all attempts at censorship, whether we agree with the content or not.

Preservation

Another value that librarians hold is that of preserving the human record. It is often said that those who fail to learn history are doomed to repeat it. In other words, we would be very wise to learn from history. And as we have recently seen in Syria with the destruction of Palmyra, there may be powerful interests involved in the destruction of historical evidence. As librarians, providing access to information means we need to preserve it as well. As more and more information becomes available only in digital form, we need to make sure we either save the information in its original format or make sure we can transfer the data into a form that can be archived. Much of the information that is only available in digital form, such as internet news stories and social media content should be preserved for future generations if they are to understand how their experience of the world was shaped by ours.

The Public Good

The “Public Good” refers the idea that libraries belong to the public and should not be up for sale or privatization. This is actually a very important issue as more and more public institutions and organizations such as prisons and jails, city maintenance, and schools are being bought out by private interests.  While some libraries have outsourced library functions such as collections and cataloging to companies like Library Systems and Sources, in many cases the outsourcing was an abject failure and librarians suffer when companies renegotiate salaries and benefits as part of the privatization effort. Because libraries are democratic institutions embedded in and run for the communities in which they exist, outsourcing to private companies is a direct contradiction to the democratic idea of a public institution.

Professionalism

Professionalism for librarians means that they have been educated through a graduate program offered at an institution of higher education. These programs like the MLIS offered at San José State University iSchool can be accredited by the American Library Association, but, more importantly, the education should “meet the social needs and goals of library services” (American Library Association, 2016b).

Service

Service is tied to the code of ethics in that “We provide the highest level of service to all library users through appropriate and usefully organized resources; equitable service policies; equitable access; and accurate, unbiased, and courteous responses to all requests.” We also “strive for excellence in the profession by maintaining and enhancing our own knowledge and skills, by encouraging the professional development of co-workers, and by fostering the aspirations of potential members of the profession” (American Library Association, 2016b).  As librarians we serve in everything we do, from procuring the materials our community wants to helping kids learn how to read. Every other value described here in some way relates to service, which is the hallmark of our profession.

Social Responsibility

The value of social responsibility charges us with doing whatever we can to ameliorate the issues and challenges of society, especially those within which our institution is embedded. This starts with helping to make sure that we are informing and educating people about these issues. Then we need to be making sure we have the best information possible available to everyone. Finally, we can help with lifting people up out of undesirable circumstances through access to materials, education, as well as by providing a welcoming environment in which people are encouraged to learn.

Coursework & Work Experience

I have taken several courses that have prepared me for this competency. In INFO-200 I learned about intellectual freedom and that librarians struggle against censorship. In my evidence, I include a discussion post that covers both ideas of preservation and the fight against censorship. Also in INFO-200, I learned about the code of ethics and the American Library Association’s Core values. As part of my evidence I include a paper I did that examined the privacy policies of Facebook. This evidence demonstrates my ability to critically analyze the terms of service and privacy policies of online content creation services. Another assignment, done for my INFO-200 course was the final project on the outsourcing of library services. This assignment shows my grasp of the issue of public good and how outsourcing is in direct conflict with that value.  In INFO-203, I wrote a blog post about privacy on social networks. I chose this evidence to illustrate the conflicting ideas of privacy and sharing of personal information when bringing social networks into libraries.  In INFO-294, we did a module on code of ethics. I am including a discussion on the code of ethics for an organization to which I belong, the IEEE Computer Society. I chose this evidence because it demonstrates my ability to understand the core values of different professional organizations. Finally, as a member of the IEEE Computer society I am professional bound by this code of ethics. For example, when I create software code that will become part of some physical product, it must have been built according to the highest standards available, for example using code reviews and other tools to ensure it does what it is supposed to do and is not dangerous. In addition, every year I am required to take and pass a “Standards of Business Conduct” course. This course gives us a bunch of different scenarios that make up different ethical dilemmas and we are required to determine the most ethical decision in each case.

Evidence

The first evidence I am submitting is a discussion post I wrote for INFO-200 called “Week 3 Discussion Post.doc” and it can be found on the evidence page for Competency A. In this discussion, I talk about the idea that libraries used to believe their mission was to educate the unwashed masses but that now librarians stand up to the government to protect their users. I also point out that intellectual freedom means libraries should carry biographies of Monica Lewinsky and Tila Tequila (an internet celebrity) even if we think they are silly.

The next evidence is called “Marie_Vans_Assn_3_Privacy_Policy.doc” and is also on the evidence page. This paper was an assignment on privacy and terms of use in INFO-200. I chose to look at the types of data Facebook collects on its users, what rights Facebook has with regard to users’ content, what levels of privacy users can set for themselves, and how secure private information really is on this social network. I discovered several issues with protection of information, even information that users have tagged as wanting to be private.  This evidence demonstrates my ability to critically analyze the privacy practices of companies that collect data on-line. As a librarian, this skill is important when deciding what social networks and other on-line sites the library might integrate into its on-line presence.  

“Braverman_Submission_Outsourcing_Libraries.doc”, which can be found on the evidence page, is a paper I wrote for INFO-200 as the final project for the class. This work directly addresses the “Public Good” as it discusses the practices and pitfalls of privatization and outsourcing of public libraries. This paper was subsequently submitted for consideration for the Braverman award, but did not receive it. This paper covers problems encountered by libraries that have tried to privatize or outsource services, the major for-profit companies that supply the so-called library services, the American Library Association’s response to the idea of privatization and outsourcing, and it includes an extensive bibliography to support the assertions that privatization is actually anti-democratic and therefore do not hold up to the American Library code of ethics. I believe this evidence illustrates my grasp on the values and code of ethics for librarians.

The next evidence is a blog posting for INFO-203 on the use of social media in the library. It is titled “LIBR203 - Blog_Post_Assignments_2.pdf” and is also on the evidence page. This blog post is mainly about privacy in social networks and virtual 3D worlds. It was done during my first semester at SJSU. In this paper, I argue that it is up to the users to keep information they want private, private. I also argue that libraries need to embrace social networking because their users do, but that they need to make sure they are protecting the privacy of library users. Interestingly, this discussion was created before I did the work on privacy and Facebook, so I was unaware that private data was not as private as most users would think.

The final evidence is a discussion post I did for my internship in INFO-294. It is called “Mod 14 Discussion_294.docx” and is the last entry on the evidence page. In this discussion I present the code of ethics for the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Computer Society. After presenting the code of ethics for this professional organization, I discuss the similarities and differences between IEEE Computer Society and ARMA (Association of Records Managers and Administrators). I believe this evidence demonstrates my ability to understand, review, and differentiate the code of ethics for various professional organizations.

Conclusions

The coursework I have taken in the MLIS program, along with assignments and membership in professional organizations have prepared me for this competency. I have shown the skills and knowledge required for implementing programs and services together with collection development that adhere to the code of ethics for librarians. I have shown that I have an understanding of the core values for librarianship and that I can apply those values to situations in which we need to turn to the code of ethics for decision making. I am very aware of privacy and diversity issues, and I believe that in any library and information position I may have in the future, I will be able to uphold the values and ethics of librarianship.

References

American Library Association. (2016a). Code of Ethics of the American Library Association. Retrieved from: http://www.ala.org/advocacy/proethics/codeofethics/codeethics, Accessed April 2, 2016.

American Library Association. (2016b). Core Values of Librarianship. Retrieved from: http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/statementspols/corevalues, Accessed April 2, 2016.

American Library Association. (2016c). Library bill of rights. Retrieved from: http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/librarybill, Accessed April 2, 2016.

American Library Association. (2016d). The freedom to read statement. Retrieved from: http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/statementspols/freedomreadstatement, Accessed April 4, 2016.

BusinessDictionary.com(2016). Ethics. Retrieved from: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/ethics.html, Accessed April 3, 2016.

EdSurge. (2013). Colorado district pulls out of inBloom. Retrieved from: https://www.edsurge.com/news/2013-11-12-colorado-district-pulls-out-of-inbloom, Accessed April 4, 2016.

Garnar, M. L. (2016). Information ethics. In: Information services today: An introduction, Hirsh, S., editor. Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD.

Givens, C.L. (2015). Information privacy and cybersecurity. In: Information services today: An introduction, Hirsh, S., editor. Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD.

Gorman, M. (2008). Professional ethics and values in a changing worlds. In: The portable MLIS: insights from the experts, Haycock, K. and Sheldon, B.E., eds. Libraries Unlimited. Westport, CT.

Jones, B. M. (2015). Intellectual freedom. In: Information services today: An introduction, Hirsh, S., editor. Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD.

Marek, K. (2015). Information policy. In: Information services today: An introduction, Hirsh, S., editor. Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD.

McCook, K. and Phenix, K. (2008). Human rights, democracy, and librarians. In: The portable MLIS: insights from the experts, Haycock, K. and Sheldon, B.E., eds. Libraries Unlimited. Westport, CT

Merriam-Webster (2016). Ethic page. Retrieved from: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Ethics, Accessed April 3, 2016. 

Rubin, R.E. (2010). Foundations of library and information science, 3rd edition. Neal-Schuman Publishers. New York, NY.